Kenneth lay guilty?

Kenneth Lay was an American entrepreneur who was widely notorious for his part in a corruption outrage that led to the breakdown of Enron Corporation. Kenneth Lay swore that he is innocent on all the things that were charged against him. He further illustrated that the one who should be blamed for the downfall of Enron is no other than Andrew Fastow as well as the Wall Street Journal. Lay claimed that he was nothing but an innocent one who got hoodwinked in the process.Lay stated that all his problems occurred when he treaded into the position after Skilling left. He further argued that he has got nothing to do with all of the predicaments they faced. A report from NPR stated that all of the allegations in the case which were charged on Lay mirror the deeds he took after he took the position after Skilling’s departure. However, this report is a little hypocritical because there are also other cases which were presented in court wherein the allegations concern troubles from bef ore Lay took up the position.Anyone who had been watching the story could fathom that Lay was really guilty of all the charges against him on the deceit that Enron has committed on the American community. His tales which shows Enron as a fancy company save for the pranks of Fastow and the dire admonitions Wall street Journal is a nothing but bunch of nonsense. As CFO, Fastow definitely did not construct the said frauds that had the Enron dealers merrily chatting about tearing off Grandma Millie. Those kinds of corruption was definitely structured and supported by people from the top.Lay may go on announcing until the end of his life that he is not guilty of the dealings of his underlings, but still he was accountable for those people he puts in custody and it was definitely his task to examine the allegations of corruption once it was brought under his nose. As could be seen Lay is guilty with all the charges against him, he did society wrong by stealing so much from the American pu blic and he has the nerve to deny and to blame his underlings for all the things he did. With that, I make firm with my stand that Lay is guilty with all the charges against him.References:BARRIONUEVO, A. (2006). The Guidelines Now Tougher, Skilling to Face Sentence Today. The New York Times.Kays, K. (2004). Conspiracy With Merrill Lynch Charged in Enron Trial. Washington PostLozano, J. A. (2006). Burden of Enron’s collapse now lies on Skilling. The Topeka Capital-Journal.Associative Press. (2006). Enron founder Ken Lay dies of heart disease.Richardson, B. (2006). Kenneth Lay: A fallen hero: BBC News.Sperry, P. (2002). Clinton ‘sweetheart’ deal speed up Enron’s collapse. WorldNetDaily.Steffy, L. (2006). Good ‘ol Grandma Millie may yet get the last laugh. Houston Chronicle.

Railroads

It was first developed in England in the 17th century. In the year 1827, The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (B&O) was the first to offer scheduled freight and passenger service to the public in the US and quickly became the prime mover of people and goods. Due to the rapid increase in demand, importance and feasibility, rail tracks could be laid anywhere and the volume of land potentially available for development expanded tremendously.In the beginning it was difficult o predict with certainty which sites with rail road access will be in demand and at what price. Soon Railroads became the principle mode of transportation and areas started depending on rail access for growth and survival. Many municipalities also paid subsidies to private rail road firms to provide service to their communities. The giant rail road companies not only received the right-of-way from the government but also millions of acres of land along their proposed route. The companies got half the land within 6 to 40 mil es of the right-of-way and the government retained the other half.The companies sold some of their land at appreciated prices and also retained vast acreage so that they can mortgage it and get capital. This turned out to be a good idea especially when politicians and citizens tried to force the sale of land. Over the years, railroad companies have retained ownership of immense quantity of urban and rural land. The land has been sold, leased, developed and has been used for all purposes. Even today, in many cities, rail road companies are still the biggest private land owners. Some of them have even formed real estate divisions to get greater returns on their assets.

New Product Launch Marketing Plan Essay

This paper will discuss the details market profiles, key buying behaviors, and decision motivators for the consumers and organization target markets. It will explain how to manage each stage of the PLC and tactical plans for the Four P’s at each stage. It will also provide the product mix for the new offering of features and benefits, branding, and any other products in line; it will show the differentiating characteristics from competitive or substitute products, packaging and labeling, and warranties and guarantees. In addition, this paper will discuss how the company will create a new positioning statement for the product, and provide justification for the new positioning strategy. Product Mix It is believed that many users will eventually start to look for alternate products created by Q-saver. For this reason after the first year of successful operation Q-saver will provide a mix of products for consumers. Q-saver will develop handheld scanners called Q-saver light to be attached to key-chains that will serve the same purpose of the smartphone app, but available for those who were not interested in using their smart phones. Another product to be offered is a digital website subscription called Q-saver virtual that will be available for consumers to see the breakdown process of discounts for products offered amongst retailer to retailer. The benefits of the two new product offerings are convenience, variety, and knowledge to support the mission to provide consumers with the greatest set of discounts by using Q-saver for their shopping needs. The Q-saver branding label will be adhered to the new products Q-saver light and Q-saver virtual. The addition of the new products w ill provide a convenient unique approach to saving. Differentiating the characteristics of the Q-saver  features the company will make surveys of recent buyers to analyze the consumer value set against the company cost for the different features. Q-saver will consider how many people want the feature, and how long it would take to introduce it and whether the competitor could certainly copy it. The company will also consider in terms of bundles or packages, as well as consider feature customization at a higher price or a many standard packages at a lower price (Kotler, & Keller (2012). Q-saver will differentiate products by customizing them. As Q-saver continue to increase it will gather information of each individual consumer and the business partner (retailers, suppliers, and distributors) the factories are designed for more flexibility. Q-saver will meet each customer requirement as individuality designed service, products, and communication (Kotler, & Keller, (2012). Q-saver packing the design for the consumer of the product. It will be attractive the consumer will want to displayed it at their home. Q-saver is a unique packaging and has a resealed spout that will bring big benefits to the consumer and profit Q-saver. Q-saver package will: Recognize the brand Q-saver Transport expressive and influential data Enable Q-saver shipping and security Storage Benefit Q-saver consumption Q-saver will choose color of packaging that carries meanings and the culture and market segments. Q-saver labeling will identify it brand and promote the product through it attractive graphics. Q-saver responsible for having a warranty statement for returned to the manufacturer or designed repair place for all repairs, replacement, or returns. Q-saver guarantees reducible risk. Q-saver has the highest quality and it service performance are dependable. The guarantee will assure the buyer of the quality and stability of Q-saver product (Kotler & Keller, (2012). Positioning For the diversified shopper, short on time, Q-saver provides the knowledge of savings and variety with the convenience of different stores and products. Q-saver is not affiliated with just one or two stores. The smartphone and  tablet app provides access to a wide variety of stores and products, providing access to current sales promotions, brand coupons, availability and so on. The objective is to position the app in the coupon app industry to best serve the market segments concerned with time management, savings and variety. Q-saver differentiates itself from competitors by providing access to a wide array of different stores’ information as well as sales promotions, providing guidance to what promotions can align with what manufacturer coupons to get the best savings, providing services such as scan and compare, the comparison of savings with consideration of other stores and so on. The application will constantly be evolving to better serve the well-informed shopper; requesting feedback and most importantly, acting on the feedback to provide the best product possible. In conclusion, the product will give details of target market profiles, behaviors and motivators’ for the organizational target market. It will explain the tactical plans of four P’s at each stage, and explain the features benefits and all differentiating characteristics for the competitive or substitute products, packaging and labeling, and warranties and guarantees. Also, create a positioning statement, which will provide justification for new positioning strategy. Reference Choosing a Product or Service to Sell. (2014). Retrieved from: http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/78778 Kotler, P., & Keller, K.L., (2012). Marketing management(14th.ed) Upper Saddle River. NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall What is competition in marketing?- definition, types & quiz (2003-2014). Retrieved June 22, 2014, from http://education-portal.com/academ/lesson/what-is-competition-in-marketing- defintion-types-quiz.html#lesson What is an offering in marketing. (2014). Retrieved from: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/offering-marketing-24088.html Reference Kotler, P., & Keller, K. (2011). Marketing management: analysis, planning, and control(14th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Rape Shield Laws Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Rape Shield Laws - Research Paper Example Center of discussion in this paper are rape shield laws, court rules or statutes which limit the defendant’s counsel ability to introduce the sexual history, past conduct or reputation of the accuser or victim as evidence during a trial relating to rape. Therefore, rape shield laws can prevent the victim from being discredited by the irrelevant information to the defendant’s innocence or guilt. In the United States, each state and the District of Columbia has a rape shield law applying to criminal cases and a few to civil cases. Rape shield laws apply to both state and federal criminal and civil cases except the certain limited circumstances, such as when the accuser’s consent can be illustrated or when the accused and the accuser have a shared history. Also, the defense may be required to prove that such evidence’s exclusion would amount to violation of constitutional rights of the defendants. Most of these laws were adopted in a bid to combat the practic e where the victims are discredited through introduction of irrelevant information concerning their reputation, sexual history or chastity. Most of these laws were adopted in the 1970s; the first rape shield law was passed in the state of Michigan in 1974 and since then all states have enacted one. Even though these laws were popular in the US, they were criticized for violating the rights of the defendant to confront the accuser as enshrined in the Sixth Amendment. It has also been criticized for being overly arduous for the defense, as well as violating civil liberties like the freedom of speech. (Flowe et al, 2007). So, what do rape shield laws do? Commonly, rape shield laws bar the introduction of reputation and opinion regarding the sexual history of the accuser. Additionally, they prove that evidence about victim’s specific sexual conduct is supposedly irrelevant unless such evidence is direct source of disease, pregnancy, or injury that may be an issue in the case, or has relation to particular sexual conduct with the defendant (The National Centre for Victims of Crime, 2011). Rape shield laws in eleven states have an exception which is known a â€Å"catch-all† which allows the judge to permit the introduction of evidence of any nature, even those that are normally barred by rape shield laws, if it is necessary to introduce that evidence in order to protect the accused constitutional rights. Various rape shield laws allow the judge to decide if the evidence in question is relevant or not. If it is relevant, the judge determines whether the evidence’s potential prejudicial impact outweighs its relevance, or not. Rape shield laws are relevant in the criminal justice system as they guard against the introduction of irrelevant evidence of the innocence or guilt of the defendant, but which can potentially prejudice the jury against the accuser or the victim (The National Centre for Victims of Crime, 2011). Flowe et al (2007) explain that rape shield laws are important to the victims as they help in ensuring that the rape victims are treated with respect, dignity, and fairness during criminal trial by making sure that the victim is not subject to a public airing about his or her past conduct, sexual reputation, and any other information which might be irrelevant. More importantly, rape shield laws increase the possibility that victims will report rape cases as they will be more likely to come forward to report. If the sexual history of the victims would have been examined or revealed in court as part of rape trial, it is very likely that victims will not report the rape cases with increasing regularity. However, it should be noted that rape shield laws only guard against the introduction of evidence or irrelevant information during trial, but do not protect the victims from publicity prior to the trial. This may probably deter many victims from reporting rape cases. Rape shield laws have been credited for the decrea sing

The Classification of Films in Specific Genres Literature review

The Classification of Films in Specific Genres - Literature review Example In his article, Film/Genre, Rick Altman strives to explain the need for the classification of films in specific genres. In doing this, he outlines some of the common film genres thus investigating the unique features of each genre that helps distinguish the numerous genres. He explains that classification is vital in the study and growth of the film industry. He alludes to the numerous other classifications in the contemporary society in underscoring the need to classify films. Among the film, genres are comedy, thriller, epic, and horror among many others. The film critic contends that people may classify films differently thus validating the existence of numerous genres. Despite the relativity of the classification system, the author further outlines numerous markers of a genre thus helping in the identification and classification of films in the industry. Key among the factors he presents is that â€Å"genres have clear stable identities and border†. Such is a fundamental e xplanation that film developers and critics consider in order to understand both the industry and the specific films. Every film genre is unique to the thematic issues represented and the tools used by the developers in representing the themes (Schatz, 2003). Altman, therefore, alludes to the features of film to develop the boundaries and identities of every film. This enhances the classification of films thus the consumption of such vital media products. In classifying films, the critic, therefore, explains that people must investigate the generic blueprint of films this implies that each film genre has a specific attribute, which he explains as the boundaries and clear stable identities. Every film must, therefore, portray the features attributed to every film (Tudor, 2006). This enhances the consumption of films thus the growth of the industry. Finally, the critic refers to the audience as the most influential party in the consumption of film. He, therefore, explains that the aud ience must identify and recognize that the film belongs to a specific genre.              

The effect of demographics and personality on investment choice among Essay

The effect of demographics and personality on investment choice among UK investors - Essay Example Many studies have been undertaken across the world by scholars as well as academicians in the field of behavioral finance to explore what all psychological and demographic factors affect personal investment decisions and choice among alternatives. The study entitled "Risk Taking and Problem Context in the Domain of Losses: An Expected Utility Analysis" by John C. Hershey and Schoemaker in 1980 observes that women investors are more risk averse than men as regards gamble is concerned (Hershey 1980). Another popular study on the gender practices of investing; the researchers remark that both men and women are equally successful in investment decisions and there found no significance difference in investment decisions between male and female groups (Hudgen 1985). In an empirical study among men and women investors in auctions and lotteries undertaken by W. V Harlow and Keith Brown document that men prefer to take more risk than women as regards lottery and auction investments are concer ned (Harlow 1990). In another significant study on investment behaviour among individual investors considering their income level William Riley and K Victor Chow attempt to remark that "relative risk aversion decreases as one rises above the poverty level and decreases significantly for the very wealthy. It also decreases with age-but only up to a point. After age 65 (retirement), risk aversion increases with age" (Riley 1992). However, the authors speculate that "education, income and wealth are all highly correlated, so the relationship may be a function of wealth rather than education" (Riley 1992). In a research paper entitled "Gender Differences in Risk Behavior in Financial-Decision-Making: An Experimental Analysis", it is found that regardless of familiarity and framing, costs or ambiguity, women prefer investments with lower risk than moderate and high risk investments avenues (Powell 1997) . The main contention of the study of N. Jianakoplos and Bernasek in 1998 is that wom en are likely to exhibit more risk aversion characteristics than men when it comes to investment in defined contribution pension assets (Jianakoplos 1998). In the paper "Gender Differences in Risk Taking: A Meta-analysis", the authors conclude that women would like to take less risk than men (Brynes 1999). Schooley Diane K and Debra Drecnik Worden in their study in 2003 document that educated investors, especially those having education higher than secondary level tend to part their hard earned money in risky portfolios (Schooley 2003). The paper also finds that age and proportion of equity holding are positively correlated. In an interesting and popular study entitled "Risk Aversion and Personality Type" by G. Filbeck, Hatfield P. and Horvath P. in 2005, the authors conclude that the relation between personality type and individual ex ante EUT risk tolerance is non-linear in form (Filbeck 2005). Reviewing the aforementioned studies and papers, the present study attempts to explore the effect of demographic and personality traits on individual investment decision

Russian Avant-garde Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Russian Avant-garde - Term Paper Example Lincoln presents the diversity and immensity of Russian art, where despite its painful past, torn by conflict and war; it was able to produce one of greatest collections and testaments of human creativity. All this achievements in art in a nation located between the East and West, the orthodox and the modern, the religious and the secular. In all the major forms of art, the artists of Russia are put in the limelight, including the context where the artists themselves were born and educated, and where their masterpieces came into being. The book by Lincoln presents the stories of Russia’s musical composers, dance choreographers, the dancers themselves, writers, poets, the architects of Russia’s awe-inspiring landmarks, theatre directors, and actors, and in recent history, filmmakers. In the midst of turmoil their nation was constantly facing, their struggles are recounted to create and preserve their nation’s identity, into art. Hence, in perspective, Between Heav en and Hell details the success and challenges of the Russian artists to light. A number of these artists, namely: Pavlova, Tolstoy, Pushkin, Tchaikovsky , Chagall, Solzhenitzyn, Diagilev, Eisenstein, and Brodsky are only among the few of the artists whose struggles in expressing their art in the midst of political and social turmoil are revealed. The book is an illustration of the birth of art and creativity in a land where politics and art are inseparable, where art continually seeks new forms and modes of expression.

EBusiness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

EBusiness - Essay Example The primary methodology of e-Business is to present high quality content on shared exchanges, integration of relevant content of business sites of the suppliers (example, SONY, SAMSUNG, LG, etc. product details documented at a high quality and presented through an exchange site where customers visit for products of a particular type, say monitors; the exchange site in turn is integrated with the databases of these companies), RSS Feeds, Search Engine Optimization and Customized Web marketing (like Google Adwords or Structured Mass Mailing). The infrastructure that needs to support the front-end marketing framework comprises of backend On-Line Transaction Processing, Content Integration Platforms and Enterprise Application Integration. The primary challenges are to first ensure that Customers visit the exchange site and then to present absolutely current information of product specifications, product availability, product pricing and backend supply chain management (like delivery mech anism - online as well as via courier services). The transactions occur very fast and completely online and hence the organization cannot afford to have sluggish approach to updating content pertaining to the marketing information. Processing of queries by Customers again need to have a very robust backend system to cater to accurate content mapping, appropriate presentation of content, ad-hoc queries, high availability & performance, etc. Clients are invited to create their personal profile through the mechanism of personalization whereby such accounts can be used to communicate with them regularly with accurate and up to date information pertaining to the product details, pricing, availability, dispatch and services/warranty. (Stonebraker, Michael and Hellerstein, Joseph. M. 2001. p1-7; Osterwalder, Alexander and Pignuer, Yves. 2002. p3). What are the Similarities and Differences in marketing for traditional business as compared to e-Business The primary objectives of marketing (stated in the section above) and the fundamentals of marketing in any business viz., market research, segmentation, product positioning, schemes, customer identification, customer engagement, supply chain, delivery mechanisms, support & warranty system etc. remain the same in both traditional marketing and e-Business. However, the competency modeling of an organization as per the competitive advantages described by Porter's Diamond (Recklies, Dagmer. 2001. p1) varies in both models of business. Businesses can reach Customers (and Suppliers) across regions, continents, cities, cultures, mindsets, etc. by virtue of a well established global computing framework for e-Business. An organization that may not have done well in traditional marketing in a continent, city, culture, segment, etc. might do very well there through e-Business. The fundamental difference that supports this theory lies in the Customer's own choice of purchases whereby the custom ers preferring e-Business mode of purchasing are normally different from the customers preferring purchases from physical outlets, like shopping marts. However, it is mandatory that a company divulged into e-Business should "get it right" in the first attempt because probability of getting a second chance is very low. This means that the risk of brand dilution in e-Business is very high. The marketing research, customer buying behavior, presentation of a product, branding style, marketing

Accounting ds Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Accounting ds - Coursework Example A number of businesses use computerized systems to handle each step in their process of accounting. Companies usually improve their AISs to remain competitive in the industry and comply with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (Simkin, 2014). There are three types of Accounting Information Systems, namely manual systems, legacy systems and modern, integrated IT systems. An organization’s choice of the system to use depends on its size, business needs, and types of business and how sophisticated the business is (Simkin, 2014). A well and carefully designed AIS usually makes a business to run smoothly on daily basis, however, a poorly-designed one hampers its operations. Just like in the cases of Lehman brothers and WorldCom, the data in AIS can be used in uncovering the story of what actually went wrong. A successful business normally has an efficient and accurate accounting information system that is well maintained. Q2 A company purchased a cash register on January 1 for $5,400. This register has a useful life of 10 years and a salvage value of $400. What would be the depreciation expense for the second year of its useful life using the double-declining-balance method? Firstly, we record the ending balances from the bank statement. Secondly, prepare a detailed list of all the deposits in transit. Then we sum the two items. Thirdly, we prepare a detailed list of all the outstanding checks, checks written or sent but not cleared. We then correct any errors before getting the difference between the ending balance and the total outstanding to get adjusted bank balance. Fourthly, we adjust the general ledger balance by adding any interest received, subtracting NSF checks, correcting any errors and subtracting any service charges to get the adjusted general ledger balance. Finally, we compare the adjusted general ledger balance to the adjusted bank balance and the two items should agree. Q4 A company

Field Report for Sierra leone Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Field Report for Sierra leone - Assignment Example As an outcome, industrialexpansions, large scale agriculture of trade products, as well as justifiable and sustainable investments have been highly neglected by governments. Therefore, the economy could be defined as exploitative, and is based on the pulling out of unsustainable resources as well as non-recyclable assets. An interview was conductedon three different groups, and from each group, one person was chosen to represent the groups. The first group was made up of people working in the government, the other group represented common people, while the other group represented the privileged in the society.The first group was represented by Mr. John; the other one was represented by Mr. Eke, while the third group was represented by Miss Ann. John: Sierra Leone is currently carrying out its development strategy under the national long term perspectives, a programme known as â€Å"vision 2025†. The significance of this programme spins around nurturing and promoting a strong, self-reliant, modest, and competitive private zone steered the economy with very strong and stable participation. Employing the overarching strategies of the long term perspectives, current macroeconomic policy is conducted on poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP)developed with the IMF. The aspects of this plan include infrastructure development, private sector development, and reforms to enhance and increase domestic revenue collection. The poverty reduction strategy puts an emphasis on agriculture and fisheries, human development, transportation, as well as energy. John: Both the PRSP and the â€Å"vision 2025† have a number of key challenges in the development of the private sector as well as an investment which includes; the dominance of a substantial and growing informal sub sector, Sierra Leone’s limited capacity to participate in investment activities, and a weak institutional environment

Compare and contrast how two named health care systems deal with one Essay

Compare and contrast how two named health care systems deal with one specific health issue - Essay Example The society-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA), frequently starts as a painful skin boil. Thereafter, it spreads through skin-to-skin contact (Ayliffe & English, 2003). Groups such as child care workers, people living in congested and contaminated places as well as conditions high school are prone to this infection. It is relatively difficult to treat MRSA infections than most strains of staphylococcus Aureus due to its resistance to some of the antibiotics that are commonly used. The resistance of antibiotics can happen in several ways. Strains of bacteria can mutate and over a long period develops resistance to a certain antibiotic (Bischofberger,  2011). Similarly, if one is treated with an antibiotic, there is a high chance that it will destroy many of the undamaging strains of bacteria that live on and in the body. Thus, allowing resistant bacteria to multiply rapidly and take their place in the body. Recently, the overuse of antibiotic is the primary reason why there is resistance of antibiotic and superbugs (Weigelt,  2008). Others factors are; not completing recommended doses of antibiotics and also using antibiotics to treat minor situations that could have been well without using such them. The concern about the effects of hospital-acquired infections has a significant European dimension. It has been projected that 8 to 12% of the patients admitted to hospitals within the European states suffer from severe infections while receiving medication (McCartney & Health Protection Agency, 2009). The European Center for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) stated that about 4.1 million patients in EU are affected (European Commission, 2009). According to ECDC, this infection result to the deaths of 37,000 people per year. Another concern is the use of multi-drug resistant bacteria in various health care institutions. The possibility of developing MRSA in a care homes or hospitals

The Negative Effects of Energy Drinks and Alcohol Essay Example for Free

The Negative Effects of Energy Drinks and Alcohol Essay In recent years the consumption of energy drinks combined with alcohol has become popular for young adults in North America. Energy drinks are caffeinated beverages that intend to provide a burst of energy and/or enhance alertness. The principle active ingredients in energy drinks are caffeine, high doses of sugar (or a sugar substitute), they generally include B vitamins, an amino acid, and plant/herbal extracts. Alcohol is a highly addictive and most commonly abused drug in North America that can impair vision, speech, memory, concentration, and reaction times along with other things. These energy drinks being a stimulant combined with alcohol being a depressant, can make a deadly cocktail for many reasons. The consumption of alcohol mixed with energy drinks is a common drinking behavior on college campuses. Here are some premixed alcohol and energy drink products that are commonly consumed on campuses such as; Sparks, Rockstar 21, Tilt and Four Loko. Four Loko has five times the amount of calories than an average twelve-ounce beer at 660 calories per can. Alcoholic energy drinks have a higher concentration of alcohol by volume. Most of these drinks are between 10% and 12% alcohol by volume as compared to most beers that are 3% to 4% alcohol by volume. This could be a major health factor for the consumers of this product. It also leads up to obesity and heart related problems. Students would lose focus while being intoxicated, not focusing on their school work needed to graduate. Researchers have found that college students who use alcohol mixed with energy drinks tend to consume more alcohol and consume alcohol more often than those who do not combine alcohol with energy drinks (OBrian et al. , 2008; Thombs et al. , 2010). Energy drinks combined with alcohol are not safe for consumption. Energy drink consumption combined with alcohol may reduce perception of alcohol intoxication and/or lead to increased alcohol use. Alcohol mixed with energy drinks reduced the perception of headache, dry mouth, and impairment of motor coordination compared with alcohol alone. Perhaps leaving drinkers of alcohol mixed with energy drinks believing they are less intoxicated and more able to drive. These people are at a greater risk of driving drunk. Drunk drivers are dangerous not only because their reactions are delayed and motor coordination affected, but mainly because their capacity to evaluate the risks to which they will be exposed is also affected. People need to understand that the sensation of well-being does not necessarily mean that they are unaffected by alcohol. Despite how good they may feel, they shouldnt drink and drive. Never. (Souza-Formigoni 10). It leaves people with dehydration or possibly alcohol poisoning. There are many harmful things that one could encounter while consuming this deadly cocktail such as dehydration, alcohol poisoning, drunk driving, and heart attacks. Energy drinks (stimulant) and alcohol (depressant) should never be mixed together for these unhealthy and unsafe reasons.

Solenoid Operated Piston Pump Engineering Essay

Solenoid Operated Piston Pump Engineering Essay This project is aimed at analysing and designing a solenoid operated piston pump which is capable of delivering solution (this report assumes water) at a flow rate of 1 litre/min. However, the customer usage requires the flow rate to remain between 0.9 and 1.1 litre/min at an ambient pressure of about 1 bar. The operation mode of the piston pump is described below using the diagram: OscillPistonPump Fig 1.1 Solenoid Operated Piston Pump1 The solenoid coil (4) generates an electromagnetic field by the single wave diode rectified current flowing through the coil. Each current pulse moves the piston (5) against the pressure spring (3). This movement reduces the volume in the suction chamber causing an increase in pressure (P a 1/V), which opens the valve (6) in the piston, thereby allowing the liquid to run into the pressure side. When the current acting on the solenoid pulse is off, the pressure spring pushes back the piston toward the pressure side. The increase of pressure caused by the piston movement closes the piston valve (6) and the liquid flows through the valve (7) set in the pressure connection (8) and into the pressure pipe. The piston movement also simultaneously increases the volume in the suction chamber, thereby reducing the pressure below the chamber. The low pressure in the suction chamber opens the valve (2) set in the suction connection (1), and the liquid is sucked into the pump and the cycle starts again. The piston size and the length of its displacement define the flow rate. The pump will run without damage when the liquid flow is stopped momentarily1. This design concentrated on the piston, suction chamber and pressure springs design. Although references were made to the valves and solenoid force, engineering analysis were not carried out on them. CHAPTER 2 INITIAL ENGINEERING DESIGN ANALYSIS This section considered the engineering analysis of the operation of the piston pump to achieve the require specifications. The given specifications are; Flow rate Q = 1 Lit/min Frequency F = 60 cycles/sec Ambient Pressure = 1 bar Using the above specifications, the length of stroke of the piston, which is also termed as the â€Å"Swept Volume†, can be calculated using the relation below: Q = Volumetime=Volume Ãâ€"frequency = Ï€ d2 L4 Ãâ€"f ∠´L= 4QÏ€d2f Where: Q = Flow Rate =1 lit/min= 1.667 Ãâ€"104 mm3/sec f = Frequency (cycles/sec) L = Length of stroke/Swept volume (mm) d = Diameter of piston/suction chamber (mm) The diameter was varied from 1 to 20 mm and the corresponding lengths of stroke were obtained at different frequencies of 40, 45, 50, 55 and 60 cycles/sec. The results obtained were plotted (See appendix 1). After careful look, the frequency at 40 cycle/sec, so subsequent calculations would be based on this. It was also noticed that reasonable pair of dimensions of the diameter and length occurred around the diameters 5-10mm, therefore subsequent calculations were based on this range. 2.1 LOAD ANALYSIS The load analysis was carried out on each component designed as indicated below: A. Piston: The load analysis on the piston was done by isolating the piston and analysing the forces acting it. The different forces acting on the piston are as shown below: Force on piston causing acceleration Magnetic force from solenoid coil Resultant spring force Kinematic frictional force Gravitational force Resultant hydraulic force (including assumed viscous effect) This is assuming that atomic, initial static frictional force and temperature effects are negligible. The force analyses were carried out considering three different cases under which the pump operation can undergo. The intake and ejection strokes were also analysed separately to reduce complications. The difference between the intake and ejection stroke is that, the magnetic force from the solenoid is zero during ejection, because the solenoid is off: Case I: This is when the piston pump is used horizontally, that is, it is used to pump fluid on the same datum. This means that the gravitational effect and the height difference in the hydraulic force will be zero. The relationship between the forces will therefore be: Intake stroke: Force causing motion = Force from solenoid Resultant spring force Resultant hydraulic force Frictional force Ejection stroke: Force causing motion = Resultant spring force Resultant hydraulic force Frictional force Case II: This considered the case when the pump is used to transfer fluid from a higher level to a lower level. This means that the gravitational effect will favour the direction of flow therefore reducing the force needed to drive the piston. The relationship between the forces will therefore be: Intake stroke: Force causing motion = Force from solenoid Resultant spring force Resultant hydraulic force Frictional force Gravitational force Ejection stroke: Force causing motion = Resultant spring force Resultant hydraulic force Frictional force + Gravitational force Case III: This considered the case when the piston pump is used to deliver fluid from a lower level to a higher level. The difference between this case and case II is in the gravitational effect and the datum difference in the hydraulic effect. The design load analysis was done under this circumstance because pumps are usually used for this particular purpose. Even with this design concept, the pump can still be used for other cases, but it might deliver fluid at a higher flow rate, which could still be in the boundaries of the given tolerance of the flow rate. The relationship between the forces will therefore be: Intake stroke: Force causing motion = Force from solenoid Resultant spring force Resultant hydraulic force Frictional force + Gravitational force Ejection stroke: Force causing motion = Resultant spring force Resultant hydraulic force Frictional force Gravitational force. The different forces were calculated as follows using the free body diagram of the piston shown below: Figure 2.1 Boundary conditions of intake and ejection strokes Force from solenoid coil= Fs Force on piston causing motion = Mpa Where Mp = mass of piston kg and a = acceleration of piston (mm/s2) Mp= Ï  Ãâ€"V Ï  = Density of material (Stainless steel) =8Ãâ€"10-6 (kg/mm3) V=Volume of fluid displced in one stroke mm3= Q Ãâ€"t= Qf where f=45 cycles/sec=90 strokes/sec (2 strokes=1 cycle) Mp= Ï  Ãâ€" Qf=8Ãâ€"10-6 Ãâ€" 1.667 Ãâ€"10490=1.482Ãâ€"10-3 From law of motion; v2= u2+ 2aS u = 0 ∠´a=v22S Also v= St= S Ãâ€"f v=Velocity (mm/s) and S= L=Length of stroke (mm) ∠´a=L Ãâ€"f22L= L Ãâ€" f22= L Ãâ€" 9022 The length was varied from 5 to 10 mm, and different accelerations were obtained (See appendix 2). Resultant spring force = K2∆x- K1∆x= ∆xK2- K1= ∆x∆K Where K1 and K2=Stiffness of springs 1 and 2 respectively (N/mm) ∆x=L=Stoke length (mm) Kinematic frictional force = ÃŽ ¼kÃâ€"N= ÃŽ ¼kÃâ€"Mpg Where ÃŽ ¼k=Coefficient of kinematic friction N=Normal force= Mpg g=acceleration due to gravity=9810 mm/s2 Gravitational force = Mpg Hydraulic force = Total Change in Pressure ∆P (N/mm2)Surface Area of Piston A (mm2) From Bernoulllis equation   P1Ï g+ V122g+ Z1= P2Ï g+ V222g+ Z2 ∆P= P1-P2=Ï V22-V122+ ∆ZÏ g Q= A1V1= A2V2 ,   then V2= QA2= A1V1A2 and V1= QA1 ∆P= Ï A1V1A22-V122+ ∆ZÏ g= V12Ï 2 A1A22- 1+ ∆ZÏ g ∆P= Ï  Q22A12A1A22- 1+ ∆ZÏ g Where Q= Flow rate (mm3/s) , Ï  =density of water =1Ãâ€"10-6 (kg/mm3) A1and A2=Area mm2   and V1 and V2=Velocity (m/s) ∆Z=L=Length of Stroke mm Including the discharge coefficient C = 0.98 to account for viscous effect, ∆P therefore becomes: ∆P= Ï  Q22C2A12A1A22- 1+ LÏ g ∠´ Hydraulic force = Ï  Q22C2A12A1A22- 1+ LÏ gSurface Area of Piston A mm2 = Ï  Q22C2A12A1A22- 1+ LÏ gA2- A1 The forces were algebraically added according the ejection stroke equation developed above (case III) to obtain ?K at different diameter of pistons, fixing inner diameter of Piston D2 (corresponding to A2) = 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5mm (See appendix 3). Force causing motion = Resultant spring force Resultant hydraulic force Frictional force Gravitational force. Mpa= L ∆K- Ï  Q22C2A12A1A22- 1+ LÏ gA2- A1- ÃŽ ¼kMpg- Mpg ∆K= 1LMpa+ ÃŽ ¼kg+g+ Ï  Q22C2A12A1A22- 1+ LÏ gA2- A1 The hydraulic effect is due to the fluid forced out from the suction chamber into the outlet. Therefore the A1 and A2 will be the area of the piston and the outlet, corresponding to diameters D1 and D2 respectively. Also the outlet diameter was assumed to be equal to the inner diameter of the piston. The results obtained for difference in stiffness ?K above, were used to obtain the force from solenoid coil Fs using the injection stroke equation above. Also different diameter of piston were used while varying the inner diameter of piston D2 (corresponding to A2) = 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5mm (See appendix 4). Considering the intake stroke equation for case III: Force causing motion = Force from solenoid Resultant spring force Resultant hydraulic force Frictional force + Gravitational force Mpa= Fs-L∆K- Ï  Q22C2A12A1A22- 1+ LÏ gA1- ÃŽ ¼kMpg+ Mpg Fs= Mpa+ ÃŽ ¼kg-g+L∆K+ Ï  Q22C2A12A1A22- 1+ LÏ g A1 The hydraulic effect is due to the change in pressure as the fluid passes through the piston, because of the reduction in area. Therefore the A1 and A2 will be the area of the piston outer and inner diameter, corresponding to diameters D1 and D2 respectively. B. Pressure Springs: The load analysis of the spring was also done by isolating the spring and analysing the forces acting it. Considering the ejection stroke of upper spring (spring 1), the different forces acting on the spring are as shown below: Force on piston causing acceleration Spring force Resultant hydraulic force (including assumed viscous effect) This is assuming that the frictional force on spring is negligible because the surface area contacting the wall is small. Force causing motion = Spring force + Resultant hydraulic force Mpa= LÃâ€"K1+ Ï  Q22C2A12A1A22- 1+ LÏ g A1 K1=1LMpa- Ï  Q22C2A12A1A22- 1+ LÏ g A1 ∠´K2=K1+∆K Where Force on springs Fsk=KÃâ€"Length of stroke The values of stiffness of springs 1 and 2 were calculated using the relationships above at different outer and inner diameters of the piston. The graphs were plotted to see the variations (See appendix 5 and 6). C. Inlet Valve and Spring: Considering also the inlet valves and analysing the forces acting it, the injection stroke is caused by an increase in volume of the suction chamber, causing a corresponding decrease in pressure. Therefore the different forces acting on the inlet valve are given below: Inlet spring force at compression Resultant hydraulic force (including assumed viscous effect) This is assuming that the frictional force and gravitational force on the valve is negligible because the valve is light. Resultant Pressure Change= ?P From Gas Law: P1V1= P2V2 P1 and P2 are the initial and final pressures of both the inlet and suction chamber respectively (N/mm2). The initial pressure P1 is assumed to be equal to the external pressure which is given to be equal to the atmospheric pressure Pa = 1 bar = 0.1 N/mm2. That is why fluid is not flowing because there is no pressure difference, or P1 was higher than Pa P2= P1V1V2= PaV1V2 where V2=V1+Vs and Vs=Swept Volume per stoke Vs=Flow rateFrequency in stroke/sec=1.667Ãâ€"10490 =185.22 mm2/stroke P2= P1V1V1+Vs ∆P1=Change in pressure due to swept volume= Pa-P2 ∆P1=Pa-PaV1V1+Vs=Pa V1+Vs-PaV1 V1+Vs=PaV1-PaV1+PaVsV1+Vs=PaVsV1+Vs Where V1 = VT and it is the total volume of the inlet spring area, suction chamber and the inner space of the piston. ∆P2=Pressure Change due to area changes ∆P2=Ï  Q22C2A12A1A22- 1+ LÏ g The above pressure change is the sum of the pressure changes from the inlet through suction chamber and into pistons inner diameter. This is negligible because the pressure drops as it enters the suction chamber and increases as it enters the inner diameter of piston, thereby almost cancelling out. ∆P=∆P1=PaVsVT+Vs Hydraulic force=spring force at compression ∆P1A3=PaVsA3VT+Vs= K3x3 PaVs=K3x3A3VT+ K3x3A3Vs VT=PaVs- K3x3A3VsK3x3A3 Where A3=Inlet area mm2, K3=Inlet Spring Stiffness (N/mm) and x3=Spring movement=Valve lifting mm The values the total internal volume VT was obtained at different values of the diameter of the inlet D3 (corresponding to A3). The value of the spring force K3x3 was varied from 0.01 to 0.05 N and the variations were plotted to see an appropriate one (See appendix 7). 2.2 Component Design and Selection The component design has been carried out along with the load analysis shown above. The desired dimensions for different components were then selected after a careful study and analysis of the graphs plotted. The dimensions were selected based on those that satisfy the required specifications, reasonably able to be manufactured and can be selected from the manufacturers catalogue as in the case of the springs2. Below are the component dimensions: Solenoid: Solenoid Frequency: 45cycles/sec = 90 strokes/sec Force from solenoid coil: 108.8N Length of stroke: 7.367 mm Piston: Piston outer diameter: 8 mm Piston inner diameter: 2 mm Springs: Pressure spring 1 rate = 5.771 N/mm Force on spring 1 = Rate * length of stroke = 5.771 * 7.367 = 42.515 N Pressure spring 2 rate = 14.683 N/mm Force on spring 1 = Rate * length of stroke = 14.683 * 7.367 = 108.17 N From the above calculations and estimated values of the spring rates, the most accurate spring chosen from the compression spring catalogue are (see appendix 8 and 9): Spring 1: C6609150 Wire diameter: 1.02 mm Outer Diameter: 7.62 mm Free length: 15.88 mm Rate: 5.81 N/mm Spring 2: D22110 Wire diameter: 1.25 mm Outer Diameter: 7.55mm Free length: 17mm Rate: 15.03 N/mm Inlet: Inlet spring stiffness = 0.02 N/mm Inlet spring length = 9.804 mm Inlet diameter = 1.78 mm 2.3 Stress Analysis The stress analysis was carried out on just two components as shown below. This was because these are the two components whose failure affects the pump operation most. A. Piston: The two stresses acting on the piston are normal and shear stresses which is given as. Stress (N/mm2) sij= Force (N)Area (mm2) The notation is to differentiate between the direction and plane of action, where the first digit represents the plane of action and the second digit represents the direction of force. When the notations are different, it signifies shear stress and when the notations are the same it means normal stress. The force on the piston varies as the piston goes through the cycle, therefore the different forces and principal stresses were calculated as the spring compresses and stretches. This was shown in appendix 10 and 11, but the calculations of the maximum and minimum principal stresses at the springs peak are shown below. The principal stresses were calculated because they are the cause of fracture in a component3. Considering the piston and spring 1: Fig 2.2: Stresses acting on piston from spring 1 and wall3 s11= 0 because there is no horizontal force in that direction s12= Force from SolenoidSurface area of piston= Fsp Do Lp= 108.8pÃâ€"8Ãâ€"15=0.2886 N/mm2 Where D0=Outer diameter of piston mm, Lp=Length of Piston (mm) s22= Force from spring 1Outer Area-Inner Area= K1Lp4 Do2- Di2 s22=5.771 Ãâ€"7.367p4 82- 22= 42.51547.1239=0.9022 N/mm2 s21= 0 because there is no horizontal force in that direction Considering the piston and spring 2: s11= 0 because there is no horizontal force in that direction s12= Force from SolenoidSurface area of piston= Fsp Do Lp= 108.8pÃâ€"8Ãâ€"15=0.2886 N/mm2 Where D0=Outer diameter of piston mm, Lp=Length of Piston (mm) s22= Force from spring 2Outer Area-Inner Area= K2Lp4 Do2- Di2 s22=14.638 Ãâ€"7.367p4 82- 22= 107.838147.1239=2.2884 N/mm2 s21= 0 because there is no horizontal force in that direction The total principal stress which is the usual cause of fracture was calculated using the total normal stresses from the springs and the shear stress from solenoid. Total shear stresses: Ts12=s12 from Spring 1+ s12 from Sprig 2=0.2886+0.2886= 0.5772 Total normal stresses: Ts22=s22 from Spring 1+ s22 from Sprig 2=0.9022+2.2954= 3.1976 Therefore the principal stresses: s11s22- s(s11+s22)+s2-s122=0 0Ãâ€"3.1976- s(0+3.1976)+s2-0.57722=0 s2-3.1976s-0.3331=0 Principal stresses; smin=-0.101 N/mm2, smax=3.2986 N/mm2 B. Pressure Springs: The major stress acting on the spring is shear stress acting on the coils. The force and consequentially the shear stress on the springs vary as the piston deflection (i.e. length of stroke) increases and decreases. The various forces and shear stresses were calculated and the graph plotted (see appendix 12). But the calculation of the maximum shear stress, which occurs at the full deflection is shown below4: Fig 2.4: Force acting on spring4 Shear stress tmax= 8FDWpd3 Where F=Force on spring N D=Mean outer diameter of spring mm d=diameter of spring coil mm W = Wahl Correction Factor which accounts for shear stress resulting from the springs curvature W=4C-14C-4+0.615C C=Dd Considering Spring 1 Fmax= K1Ãâ€"Length of stroke=5.771Ãâ€"7.367=42.515 N/mm2 D=7.62 mm and d=1.02 mm ?C=Dd= 7.621.02=7.4705 W=4C-14C-4+0.615C= 4Ãâ€"7.4705-14Ãâ€"7.4705-4+0.6157.4705=1.1982 tmax= 8FmaxDWpd3= 8Ãâ€"42.515 Ãâ€"7.62Ãâ€"1.1982pÃâ€"1.023=931.113 N/mm2 Considering Spring 2 Fmax= K1Ãâ€"Length of stroke=14.638Ãâ€"7.367=108.17 N/mm2 D=7.55 mm and d=1.25 mm ?C=Dd= 7.551.25=6.04 W=4C-14C-4+0.615C= 4Ãâ€"6.04-14Ãâ€"6.04-4+0.6156.04=1.2506 tmax= 8FmaxDWpd3= 8Ãâ€"108.17 Ãâ€"7.55Ãâ€"1.2506pÃâ€"1.253=1331.119 N/mm2 CHAPTER 3 INITIAL MANUFACTURING DESIGN ANALYSIS 3.1 Dimensions The dimensions of all the main components; piston, springs, cylinder and valves had been obtained from the calculations and graphical analysis made above. However, the detailed dimensions of all components namely; pump body (left and right side), cylinder and liners, piston, springs and valves are shown in the CAD drawing in appendix 13. 3.2 Tolerances Tolerance for Stroke Length The statistical tolerance of the stoke length was calculated using integral method, which is much more effective than an additional tolerance. Given the tolerance of the flow rate as  ± 0.1litres/min, the tolerance of the frequency was assumed to be  ± 5 cycles/sec under normal distribution condition. The tolerance of the stroke length was calculated as follows: Standard deviation s=Tolerance3 Ãâ€"Cp where Cp=process capability index In general manufacturing industry, a process capability index (Cp) of 1.33is considered acceptable. Therefore Cp Flow rateQ=1  ±0.1 lit/min= 1.667 Ãâ€"104  ±1.667 Ãâ€"103mm3/sec   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ÏÆ'Q=3.33 Ãâ€"1033 Ãâ€"1.33=8.356 Ãâ€"102 Frequency F= 45  ±5 cycles/sec (Assuming a Normal distributed variable)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ÏÆ'f=103 Ãâ€"1.33=2.506 Therefore the flow rate and frequency could be written as; Q ~ N 1.667 Ãâ€"104 , 8.356 Ãâ€"102 mm3/sec f ~ N 45 , 2.506 cycles/sec Q = Volumetime=Volume Ãâ€"frequency = Ï€ d2 L4 Ãâ€"f ∠´L= 4QÏ€d2f Using differential tolerance: ÏÆ'∅2= i=1n∂∅∂xi2 ÏÆ'xi2 ÏÆ'L2= ∂L∂Q2ÏÆ'Q2+ ∂L∂f2ÏÆ'f2+ ∂L∂d22ÏÆ'd2 ÏÆ'L2= 4Ï€ 1ÃŽ ¼d2 Ãâ€"ÃŽ ¼f2ÏÆ'Q2+ ÃŽ ¼QÃŽ ¼d2 Ãâ€"ÃŽ ¼f22ÏÆ'f2+ ÃŽ ¼QÃŽ ¼d3 Ãâ€"ÃŽ ¼f2ÏÆ'd2 Ãâ€"2 ∠´Tolerance=ÏÆ'3 Ãâ€"Cp The standard deviations and tolerances of the stoke length were calculated using the above equations, while varying the diameter from 1 to 20 mm, and the results were plotted out (see appendix 14). Tolerance for Piston Principal Stress Assuming a normally distributed around the maximum principal stress acting on the piston, the standard deviation and the tolerance of the maximum principal stress was calculated using the load distribution obtained in appendix 11. ∠´3ÏÆ'=3.2918-0.5772=2.7146 Tolerance=CpÃâ€"3ÏÆ'=1.33Ãâ€"2.7146=3.6104 N/mm2 Upper and lower limit=3.61042= ± 1.8052 N/mm2 Tolerance for Springs Shear Stress Also assuming a normally distributed around the maximum shear stress acting on the springs, the standard deviation and the tolerance of the maximum shear stress was calculated using the load distribution obtained in appendix 12. For spring 1: ∠´3ÏÆ'=931.113-0=931.113 Tolerance=CpÃâ€"3ÏÆ'=1.33Ãâ€"931.113=1238.38 N/mm2 Upper and lower limit=1238.382= ± 619.19 N/mm2 For spring 2: ∠´3ÏÆ'=1331.119-0=1331.119 Tolerance=CpÃâ€"3ÏÆ'=1.33Ãâ€"1331.119=1770.39 N/mm2 Upper and lower limit=1770.392= ± 885.195 N/mm2 3.3 Fits The components that are fitted into the cylinder, namely; cylinder liner, piston springs 1 and 2 are almost of equal diameter. But because of the consideration of the fits and limits to give some allowance a transition fit was chosen from â€Å"Data Sheet 4500A British Standard selected ISO Fits-Hole Basis†. Since it fell in between the nominal size of 0 6 mm, the transition fit selected was H700.015 for the hole and k60-0.009 for the shaft5. 3.4 Material Selection Piston and Cylinder The piston and the cylinder are to be made of stainless steel grade 431. This is due to the prevention of fracture which could be caused by principal stress. From the maximum principal stress obtained for the piston above (3.2986 N/mm2 = 3.2986 MPa), it is sure that the material which has a yield strength of 655 MPa will be able to prevent failure. Also the other reason for choosing this material is because of its high resistance to corrosion6. Since the piston and cylinder interacts with the fluid, which increases the tendency for corrosion to occur, it is quite safe to use a highly corrosion resistance material like this. It is also very easily machined in annealed condition. The properties of the stainless steel grade 431are shown in appendix 156. Springs The springs are to be made of stainless steel grade 316. This is also due to the strength of the grade in preventing fracture, breakage and buckling of the spring due to the shear stress acting on it. From the maximum shear stress calculated above (1331.119 N/mm2 = 1.331 GPa), it is sure that this grade of stainless steel with an elastic modulus of 193 GPa will be able to withstand the compression. The material is also highly corrosion resistant and relatively easy to machine. The other properties of the stainless steel grade 316 are shown in appendix 156. Valves The valves are to be made of polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE, which is a thermoplastic. This was chosen because the material has to be light and can easily float. Also, it has very low coefficient of friction, which reduces the fluid drag force and wears on the piston and spring. 3.5 Surface Finish The surface finishing chosen for the manufacturing of the parts was to be 0.8  µm Ra. This is to reduce friction and rate of wear, because there are lots of parts moving against each other. The grinding process requires a very great accuracy because it is a relatively delicate manufacturing process. 3.6 Geometric Tolerance In obtaining the tolerance of the components, since algebraic addition of tolerances is very unrealistic and will not be efficient, the tolerances of components that fit into each other were taken from the â€Å"Data Sheet 4500A British Standard selected ISO Fits-Hole Basis†5. These are show below S/No Parts Dimensions (mm) Tolerances (mm) Drawings 1 Cylinder 11.00 + 0.015 2 Cylinder liner 8.00 0.009 3 Piston 2.00 0.006 4 Spring 1 17.00  ± 0.0015 3.7 Process Selection The manufacturing processes of the various parts of the pump will be very important aspects of the design.The parts to be manufactured are pump body, cylinder liners and piston. It will take a great deal of accuracy in carrying out the process, because the geometry of the parts is very delicate. Any wrong dimension will affect the output or operation of the pump. There are three steps in manufacturing the components mentioned above. Firstly, all the components would be manufactured by casting, which would probably not give the accurate dimensions. Then a turning/boring process can then be carried out, using a CNC or lathe machines, to achieve better dimension. The last process is the surface finish, which gives a smoother and precise dimension. It is relatively easier to manufacture the components by this method because of the intricacies of the geometry and dimensions, and also the materials chosen are easily machined. The manufacturing process of the springs would not be considered in this report because they are provided by suppliers. CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OPTIMISATION 4.1 Component Manufacturing Risk Assessment Component Name Pump Body (Left Right Side) Calculation of qm Drawing number 001 mp = 1 Ãâ€" 1.6 = 1.6 gp = 1.7 Ãâ€" 1 Ãâ€" 1 Ãâ€" 1 Ãâ€" 1.1 Ãâ€" 1.1 = 2.057 Ajustable tol= Design tolmpÃâ€"gp = + 0.0151.6 Ãâ€"2.057=+0.00455 tp = 1.7Ãâ€"1 = 1.7 sp = 1 Ãâ€" 1.3 = 1.3 qm = 1.7 Ãâ€" 1.3 = 2.21 Manufacturing variability risk, qm = 2.21 Material 431 Stainless Steel Manufacturing Process Turning/Boring Characteristic Description Holes at centre to edge Characteristic Dimension 8 mm Design Tolerance + 0.015 Surface Roughness 0.8 µm Ra Component Name Piston Calculation of qm Drawing number 005 mp = 1 Ãâ€" 1.6 = 1.6 gp = 1 Ãâ€" 1 Ãâ€" 1 Ãâ€" 1 Ãâ€" 1 Ãâ€" 1.1 = 1.1 Ajustable tol= Design tolmpÃâ€"gp = 0.0061.6 Ãâ€"1.1=0.0034 tp = 1.7Ãâ€"1 = 1.7 sp = 1 Ãâ€" 1 = 1 qm = 1.7 Ãâ€" 1 = 1.7 Manufacturing variability risk, qm =1.7 Material 431 Stainless Steel Manufacturing Process Turning/Boring Characteristic Description Holes at centre to edge Characteristic Dimension 2 mm Design Tolerance 0.002, -0.008 Surface Roughness 0.8 µm Ra  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The values of the component manufacturing risk analysis obtained above are considerably with a low risk. This shows that the processes chosen for the manufacturing of the components are acceptable. 4.2 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) The failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) is an analytical technique performed to ensure that all possible failure modes of the piston pump have being identified and address. Below are the predicted failure modes of each components of the piston pump, the caused, effects and the suggested solutions: It can be seen from the FMEA above that the spring breakage has the greatest severity, but the wear on all the components has the greatest risk priority number. This is because wear would be experience by the customer over time of use which made the risk priority number very high. Therefore, while desig

The Breakdown of Fructose

The Breakdown of Fructose First of all I would like to describe the term enzymes. Basically enzymes are protein which is used in the chemical reaction and they act as a catalyst in these reactions. Their function is to speed up the chemical reaction without using themselves. If they are not used as a catalyst in the reactions than the reaction speed would be very slow and in this way the products of the reactions will not come. So it is now clear that enzymes are very important in certain biochemical reactions which are taking place in our body and without these enzymes our body will not be able to perform these biochemical reactions and as a result we will not be able to continue our life. Enzymes are involved in the breakdown of fructose. Basically fructose is simple sugar that is present in our food like honey and fruits. Fructose is basically a carbohydrate which provides energy to our body. it is very important to mention that fructose do not gave energy to our body directly but certain enzymes are require to breakdown this fructose into simpler sugar and then into usable form of energy. The process of the breakdown of fructose is as follows: Firstly when fructose in enters in our body then initial catabolism of fructose is takes place in our body and this process is referred to as fructolysis. The cycle of fructose breakdown begins with the enzyme called fructokinase which is found in liver. This fructokinase will produce fructose 1- phosphate so this is the end of first step. In the next step another enzyme named aldolase B will convert the fructose 1-phosphate into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde. These two products are used by the body in order to get energy so without these enzymes the body will not be able to carry out the breakdown of fructose and in this way our body will not be able to ingest the food containing fructose. (Seller et al., 1969) Explain how a deficiency in aldolase B can be responsible for hereditary fructose intolerance. First of all I would like to explain the term fructose intolerance. Fructose intolerance is basically a condition in which the person is not able to digest the sugar fructose. After taking fructose containing diet like honey or fruits the person with fructose intolerance may experience nausea, bloating, abdominal pain, diarrhea and vomiting etc. Basically mutation in Adolab gene leads to the hereditary fructose intolerance. This Aldolab is responsible for the formation of Aldolase B enzyme. As I already mention that this enzyme is present in Liver and causes the breakdown of fructose and thus convert this fructose into simpler sugar which is then used as a source of energy in our body. A deficiency in the enzyme Aldolase B may cause the accumulation of the fructose 1-phosphate in the liver cell, small intestine and kidney and thus make our body unable to convert the fructose into simpler sugars and as a result the sugar level of the body will fall and cause the formation of the toxic substance that damage our liver. This damage to the liver cell leads to the liver dysfunctions, hypoglycemia and hereditary fructose intolerance. (Gitzelmann et al., 1989) Explain the role of aldolase B in the breakdown of fructose. Aldolase B plays an important role in the carbohydrate metabolism like it catalyzes one of the major steps of the glycolytic-gluconeogenic pathway. Along with its importance in the glucose breakdown it is also very important in fructose metabolism and it is very important to mention that fructose metabolism is occurring mostly in the liver, renal cortex and small intestine. The action of mechanism of this enzyme is that when fructose is absorbed by our body it is than phosphorylated into fructose 1-phospahte by the action of fructokinase. Then in the next step Aldolase B catalyzes the fructose 1-phosphate and converts it into glyceraldehyde and DHAP. After this step another enzyme triose kinase convert this glyceraldehyde into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which is then used in glycolytic-gluconeogenic pathway and that can be modified to become either glucose or pyruvate. (Peanasky et al., 1958) Discuss the specific substrate acted on by aldolase B. Aldolase B is equally active toward the substrate F-l-P (Fructose-1-Phosphate). Fructose-1-phosphate is a derivative of fructose. It is generated by fructokinase which is present in liver. It is converted by aldolase B into glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The action of the adolase B on the substrate can be explained with the help of following figure: A description CASE 2- MITOCHONDRIAL DISEASE Explain what would happen to the cells energy reserves if the interconversions of the Cori cycle occurred and remained within a single cell. If interconversion of the coricycle occurred within the single cell then it would cause the futile cycle. Basically in the futile cycle glucose is used by the cell and re synthesized at the cost of ATP and GTP hydrolysis. And loss of ATP during this futile cycle would be 4 and thats why the futile cycle is regarded as an uneconomical cycle. (Nelson et al., 2005). Construct a dynamic model to show the doctor why the citric acid cycle is central to aerobic metabolism. The citric acid cycle can be regarded as an important metabolic center of the cell. It basically act as portal to the aerobic metabolism that has the ability to form acetyl group or dicarboxylic acid. The citric acid cycle is not only act as fuel for the cell but it is also a building block of many other molecules like amino acid, cholesterol, and porphyrin (the organic component of heme). There are infact different reactions like oxidation and reduction reactions which are takes place during Krebs cycle, and these reactions will result in the oxidation of an acetyl group to two molecules of carbon dioxide. The Kreb cycle was named after the person who introduce this cycle for the first time. Different biochemical changes are noticed during Krebs cycle which will enable the cell to store the energy for future use. The other name for this Kreb cycle is tricarboxylic or citric acid, cycle. ( (Lowenstein JM 1969). Explain the role of co-enzyme Q10 in ATP synthesis. First of all I would like to give a brief introduction of Co-enzyme Q10. Co-enzyme Q10 is basically a vitamin like substance which is present in every cell and its purpose is to generate energy. And due to this property it is also called as Ubiquitous. It is necessary in energy production in the 70-100 trillion body cells. Basically the co-enzyme Q10 is required in order to convert the energy from carbohydrate and fats into Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and this process of production of ATP is carryout in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The process is like first of all the electrons which are produced during the fatty acid and glucose metabolism, Co-enzyme Q10 accept these electrons and then converted them into electron acceptors. At the same time Co-enzyme Q10 transfer the proton outside the mitochondrial membrane and in this way cause the formation of a proton gradient across that membrane. The energy released when the protons flow back into the mitochondrial interior and in this way it is used to form ATP. (Tomono et al., 1986) Explain where in the citric acid cycle a hypothetical defect could occur that prevents an increased conversion of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in response to an increased energy need and how the products of the citric acid cycle are converted into ATP. Basically during the Krebs cycle, a small amount of energy is released in order to cause the formation of molecule of ATP. It is very important to mention that in fact four-carbon molecule(oxaloacetic acid) is again created after the formation of CO2 mainly through oxidation reactions that occur in the Electron Transport Chain therefore any defect in ETC will prevent the conversion of ADP to ATP. Basically a gradient is formed in the ETC which is used to produce the ATP and this ATP is generated when H+ ion move down to its concentration gradient by a special enzyme called ATP synthase so it is now clear to us that if there is any defect in Electron transport chain then this will prevent the conversion of ADP to ATP. The products of Citric acid cycle are converted into ATP with the help of Oxidative- phosphorylation which is taking place in mitochondria. The NADH and succinate which is the product of Krebs cycle are oxidized and this will release the energy. This energy will power the ATP synthase and this enzyme will facilitate the production of ATP. (Mitchell and Moyle 1967).

Life and Health Plan Essay -- Personal Narrative Health

I am in pretty good health right now where I am at in life. My family does not have a history of anything that can be described that could be foreseen as a problem. What I can talk about is a generalized health maintenance and plan for staying healthy that should be easy to follow and quite rewarding. I will talk about eating disorders specifically so as to adhere to the instruction of the assignment. Eating disorders are some of the top concerns with any person that has health concerns regarding food. To make sure that someone can be successful in achieving a healthy body it is important to set goals that you can adhere to. One goal that is very important to me is easily to live a long and productive life. This can be considered a physical exercise goal in the sense that without exercise you can not really expect the same rewarding health as you would with regular exercise. As another goal that would help in maintaining health I would like to set monthly targets for weight and physical fitness that are realistic and obtainable. By setting a personal target weight you can compare your weight once a week and see an accurate model of what is happening with your diet and exercise plan. Developing an exercise plan that keeps you motivated and makes the time spent fun and rewarding is important to ensure the best results from any plan. On the nutritional side of a goal oriented approach to health the best idea is the simplest. By watching your caloric intake and serving sizes you can c ut out a large amount of the fat causing nutrients as well as high sodium and other things that could potentially jeopardize your health plan. In order to achieve your goals you must keep to your plan easy to follow and keep it fun and motivated ... ..., December 31). Dripping With Sweat . Retrieved June 8, 2008, from Firstpath.com Web site: http://www.firstpath.com/scripts/cgiip.exe/WService=firstpath/story.html?article=1219 Lawlor, Debbie (2001, March 31). The effectiveness of exercise as an intervention in the management of depression: systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomised controlled trials. Retrieved June 8, 2008, from BMJ Web site: http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/322/7289/763 Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, (2007, Dec 7). Food and Nutrition. Retrieved May 13, 2008, from Mayo Clinic Web site: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/food-and-nutrition/NU99999 Swenson, Jim (2006 October). Ask a Scientist. Retrieved May 13, 2008, from Argonne National Labrotory Web site: http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/aas.htm med.umich.edu/1libr/sma/sma_fluids_sma.htm

photography after 1917 :: essays research papers

Analysis of a photography after 1917. AUBREY BODINE. â€Å"BUILDERS IN LINE†. (1961) Aubrey Bodine's photographic career began in 1923 when as an office boy with the Baltimore Sun he was a newspaperman covering all sorts of stories with his camera so this gave him opportunities to travel throughout the region and learn about it in every tide, wind, weather and season and out of this experience came amazing pictures of farming, oystering, hunting, soap boiling, blacksmithing, clock making, bricklaying and dozens of other occupations he a true American original, combined reportage with the creative eye of an artist. Bodine believed that photography could be a creative discipline, and he studied the principles of art, the camera and the dark room equipment were tools to him like the painter's brush or the sculptor's chisel. He was always experimenting with his tools, but hardly ever made a mistake. Some of his best pictures were literally composed in the viewfinder of the camera. In other cases he worked on the negative with dyes and intensifiers, pencil marking, and ev en scraping to produce the effect he had in mind. He added clouds photographically, and made other even more elaborate manipulations. Bodine's rationale for all these technical alterations of the natural scene was simply that, like the painter, he worked from the model and selected those features which suited his sense of mood, proportion and design. The picture was the thing, not the manner of arriving at it. He did not take a picture, he made a picture. Bodine's work includes pictorialist images as well as "straight" story-telling photojournalism and are also creative works of great originality. From his photographs I choose the image named â€Å"Builders in Line†, a a perfectly balanced image bathed in natural light. a captured moment of history that intrigue me, amaze me, and makes me want to discover the way he could get such a piece of art. It is a construction or a structure being built and he captured the moment in which two builders are walking trough and even though the image of them is far I can almost see their faces walking so tired like robots just doing their job. This high-gloss, high-contrast print reminds me like a typical day in a builder life. He made an amazing use of light and darkness and that way he balanced the composition between the structure that we can

Mine Boy by Peter Abrhams

Mine Boy by Peter Abrhams certainly demonstrates the effects of imposing imperialism, and capitalism on a particular society. In this novel Xuma the protagonists has somewhat of an awakening. He goes from being an ignorant and innocent boy to a radical and brave man, once he realizes the impact of the foreign influence on his fellow citizens. South Africans were being oppressed and forced to live a life in which there were little to no choices. Many of them accommodated this influence by integrating themselves with their oppressors to be accepted. Some led a life of self destruction by becoming alcoholics or even engaging in illicit activity. Some like Xuma became angry radicals. Abraham shows the characters frustrations with the capitalist system that was enforced on them. There were few job opportunities, therefore leaving them with almost no options. Working in the mine was not a desired job and neither were most of the other occupations available, which led them to pursue alternative paths for income. The paths many characters took were paths that led to ultimate destruction and chaos, however these were the unfortunate consequences of imperialism and imposed systems. There is also significant mental destruction on the characters that is a direct result of the apartheid and imperialism which takes place. For example Eliza, she struggles with a sense of identity. This is a typical result of being oppressed. The oppressed begin to believe what their oppressors claim they are and proclaim about them. The oppressed in this case Eliza, begin to identify both with their oppressors as well as the others in her own group. This causes a great deal of conflict and confusion within the individual and socially as well.

Computer Security Measures Essay

The Problem and Its Scope The Internet and computer networking means that there is a need for new security measures to reduce the threats and challenges inherent from these new technologies and software applications and network devices. Information, network equipments, transmission media, computer systems, and servers are subject to threats. â€Å"Yet the use of information and communication technologies has increased the incidents of computer abuse.† Computer security involves safeguarding computing resources, ensuring data integrity, limiting access to authorized users, and maintaining data confidentiality. Effective computer security therefore involves taking physical security measures (to ensure hardware and media are not stolen or damaged), minimizing the risk and implications of error, failure or loss (for example by developing a resilient back-up strategy), appropriate user authentication (for example by employing strong pass wording), and possibly the encryption of sensitive files. We live in a world where â€Å"information wants to be free† and in which people are getting used to having access to whatever information they want anytime, anywhere and from a wider range of computing devices. Unfortunately, in terms of the security and control of the resources to which computers permit access, this can prove quite a problem. Indeed, many users unfortunately often view security and control measures as inhibitors to effective computer use. The student’s awareness about computer security measures can be a big help to them to acquire some knowledge about protection of their digital asset. In this sense, the students acquire knew knowledge on how to use computer security measures in order to protect all the data stored in their computer system. Because of the computers evolution, the researchers want to share the implications on how important the computer security measures, so that the respondents will be able to know on how to handle some cases in the future. Globally, the most used computer security measures are Anti-virus programs are the most frequently used tools to protect computer systems, and they must be upgraded regularly to protect against any new viruses. Firewall  is different from anti-virus software, which simply verifies that a file is virus free. You can also add an anti-spy ware program. Spy ware is a small program downloaded onto your computer via the internet, usually with your approval, to collect information. Anti-spy ware operates a lot like an anti-virus program, but its role is to prevent malicious spy ware (or malware) from sneaking onto your computer and transmitting your personal data. Firewall intercepts and controls traffic between networks with differing levels of trust. It is part of the network perimeter defense of an organization and should enforce a network security policy. By Cheswick’s and Bellovin’s definition, it provides an audit trail. A firewall is a good place to support strong user authentication as well as private or confidential communications between firewalls. As pointed out by Chapman and Zwicky [2] , firewalls are an excellent place to focus security decisions and to enforce a netw ork security policy. They are able to efficiently log internet work activity, and limit the exposure of an organization. The exposure to attack is called the â€Å"zone of risk.† If an organization is connected to the Internet without a firewall, every host on the private network can directly access any resource on the Internet. Or to put it as a security officer might, every host on the Internet can attack every host on the pri vate network. In the Philippines, some of the businesses are employing security products, such as intrusion detection system and firewalls, and other internal controls which are meant to safeguard, physically and logically, all servers and information systems, including the data stored in the systems. In Davao City, many colleges’ offers IT courses and one of these schools is the Holy Cross of Davao College. Some computer security measures used in some colleges are anti-virus, firewall, ad ware, spy ware and etc. This help to secure data from viruses, unauthorized a ccess, hardware failure and hardware theft. Rationale of the Study The term Information Technology is the area of managing technology and spans wide variety of areas that include computer software, information systems, computer hardware, programming languages but are not limited to things such as processes, and data constructs. In short, anything renders data,  information or perceived knowledge in any visual format whatsoever, via any multimedia distribution mechanism, is considered part of the Information Technology (IT) domain. Computer security is to prevent or detect unauthorized actions by users of the system. The protection of data stored in your computer system. The protection of data (information security) is the most important. The protection of networks is important to prevent loss of server resources as well as to protect the network from being used for illegal purposes. The objective of this study is to know the level of awareness and utilization of all first year BSIT students in terms of computer viruses, unauthorized access, and hardware failure and hardware theft. Theories and Concept This study was anchored on the concept of Dynamic awareness theory (DAT) offers an alternative to explaining the creation of awareness in distributed work groups. DAT highlights the important role of users and social practices in awareness creation. The theory further points to the dynamic nature of awareness creation: Awareness emerges over time and depreciates when not being actively attended to by the users. A person’s awareness is not a static state which can be arbitrarily turned on and off. It is rather a slow build-up of information about his surroundings (Kai Riemer, Russel Haines, 2008).  This theory of awareness is use to conceptualize each individual of their daily awareness about what happen in their community, because awareness requires active maintenance because it diminishes over time. Independent variable Dependent variable Figure 1. Conceptual Framework Showing the Variables of the Study The response of the first year BSIT students in the level of awareness and utilization about computer security measures in terms of Virus, Unauthorized Access, Hardware Failure and Hardware Theft depends with the experiences  they encountered in their system in which it is the basis of the reasons for the awareness of the students. Statement of the Problems 1. What is the level of awareness of the respondents about computer security measures against the following threats: a.Virus b.Unauthorized access c.Hardware failure d.Hardware theft 2. What is the level of utilization of the respondents on computer security measures? 3. What is the most practiced computer security measure by the respondents? 4. What is the least practiced computer security measure by the respondents? 5. Is there a significant difference between the level of awareness and utilization of the computer security measures by the respondents? Method The researches conduct this type of research in order to obtain certain information about the computer security measures. The researchers used descriptive assessment method in order to meet the objective of the study. To gather data, the researchers use these procedures in order to analyze the data that has been collected. Research Design In order to determine the level of awareness and utilization about computer security measures, the descriptive assessment method of research is used. This is used by the researches because the objective of this study is to determine the level of awareness and utilization within the first year BSIT students without affecting them in any way. Descriptive research design exhibits specific subject and as precursor to more quantitative studies. The actual survey is conducted during the second semester of the year 2011-2012. The procedure used is carefully, analyzed in order to obtain accurate information. Research Environment The researchers conducted a research to a certain private school. The Holy Cross of Davao College is located at Sta. Avenue Davao City. The respondents of this research are all first year BSIT students. Respondents of the Study To achieve the desire information, all first year BSIT students of Holy Cross of Davao College were the participants of the study. They were chosen because they are not more knowledgeable compared to the higher years. The selected numbers of respondents were expected to give their honest answers. Research Instruments In this study, the researches use questionnaire as research instrument. It is most common instrument or tool of research for obtaining data beyond the physical reach of the observer.  Part I of the questionnaire is the level of awareness of all first year BSIT students towards computer security measures in terms of Viruses, Unauthorized access, Hardware Failure and Hardware Theft. Part II of the questionnaire is the level of utilization of all first year BSIT students towards computer security measures in terms of Viruses, Unauthorized access, Hardware Failure and Hardware Theft. Data Gathering Procedures In gathering data procedure, first the researchers conceptualized what study to conduct and arrived to a research title â€Å"Level of Awareness and Utilization of All First Year BSIT students about Computer Security Measures†. The research title was approved by the research adviser with the panel of examiners. After the approval of the title, a questionnaire was established to answer the research study was validated. Data Analysis The following statistical tools were employed to answer pertinent problems of the study, as follows: Frequency Count: This tool was used to count the number of items of the respondents who are aware and unaware about the computer security measures and its utilization. Weighted Mean: The weighted mean is similar to an arithmetic mean (the most common type of average), where instead of each of the data points contributing equally to the final average, some data points contribute more than others. The notion of weighted mean plays a role in descriptive statistics and also occurs in a more general form in several other areas of mathematics.

A Memory For All Seasonings Essay

Memory is one of the most important functions of the mind. Without our memories, we would have no identity, no individuality. The following article is about a mnemonist, a person with an extraordinary power of remembering. The title includes a pun, a form of humor based on a play on words. The usual phrase to describe something constant and dependable is â€Å"for all seasons†; here the phrase is changed to â€Å"for all seasonings.† (Seasonings is another word for spices, such as salt, pepper, and curry.) What hint does this give you about the mnemonist? (Early in the article you will find out.) One evening two years ago, Peter Poison, a member of the psychology department at the University of Colorado, took his son and daughter to dinner at Bananas, a fashionable restaurant in Boulder. When the waiter took their orders, Poison noticed that the young man didn’t write anything down. He just listened, made small talk, told them that his name was John Conrad, and left. Poison didn’t think this was exceptional: There were, after all, only three of them at the table. Yet he found himself watching Conrad closely when he returned to take the orders at a nearby table of eight. Again the waiter listened, chatted, and wrote nothing down. When he brought Poison and his children their dinners, the professor couldn’t resist introducing himself and telling Conrad that he’d been observing him. The young man was pleased. He wanted customers to notice that, unlike other waiters, he didn’t use a pen and paper. Sometimes, when they did notice, they left him q uite a large tip. He had once handled a table of nineteen complete dinner orders without a single error. At Bananas, a party of nineteen (a bill of roughly $200) would normally leave the waiter a $35 tip. They had left Conrad $85. Poison was impressed enough to ask the waiter whether he would like to come to the university’s psychology lab and let them run some tests on him. Anders Ericsson, a young Swedish psychologist recently involved in memory research, would be joining the university faculty soon, and Poison thought that he would be interested in exploring memory methods with the waiter. Conrad said he would be glad to cooperate. He was always on the lookout for ways to increase his income, and Poison  told him he would receive $5 an hour to be a guinea pig. Conrad, of course, was not the first person with an extraordinary memory to attract attention from researchers. Alexander R. Luria, the distinguished Soviet psychologist, studied a Russian newspaper reporter named Shereshevskii for many years and wrote about him in The Mind of a Mnemonist (Basic Books, 1968). Luria says that Shereshevskii was able to hear a series of fifty words spoken once and recite them back in perfect order fifteen years later. Another famous example of extraordinary memory, the conductor Arturo Toscanini, was known to have memorized every note for every instrument in 250 symphonies and 100 operas. For decades the common belief among psychologists was that memory was a fixed quantity; an exceptional memory, or a poor one, was something with which a person was born. This point of view has come under attack in recent years; expert memory is no longer universally considered the exclusive gift of the genius, or the abnormal. â€Å"People with astonishing memory for pictures, musical scores, chess positions, business transactions, dramatic scripts, or faces are by no means unique,† wrote Cornell psychologist Ulric Neisser in Memory Observed (1981). â€Å"They may not even be very rare.† Some university researchers, including Poison and Ericsson, go a step further than Neisser. They believe that there are no physiological differences at all between the memory of a Shereshevskii or a Toscanini and that of the average person. The only real difference, they believe, is that Toscanini trained his memory, exercised it regularly, and wanted to improve it. Like many people with his capacity to remember, Toscanini may also have used memory tricks called mnemonics. Shereshevskii, for example, employed a technique known as loci. As soon as he heard a series of words, he mentally â€Å"distributed† them along Gorky Street in Moscow. If one of the words was â€Å"orange,† he might visualize a man stepping on an orange at a precise location on the familiar street. Later, in order to retrieve â€Å"orange,† he would take an imaginary walk down Gorky Street and see the image from which it could easily be recalled. Did the waiter at Bananas have such a system? What was his secret? John Conrad would be the subject of Anders Ericsson’s second in-depth study of the machinations of memory. As a research associate at Carnegie-Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Ericsson had spent the previous three years working with William Chase on an extensive study of Steve Faloon, an undergraduate whose memory and intellectual skills were  considered average. When Ericsson and Chase began testing Faloon, he could remember no more than seven random digits after hearing them spoken once. According to generally accepted research, almost everyone is capable of storing five to nine random digits in short-term memory. After twenty months of working with Chase and Ericsson, Faloon could memorize and retrieve eighty digits. â€Å"The important thing about our testing Faloon is that researchers usually study experts,† Chase says. â€Å"We studied a novice and watched him grow into an expert. Initially, we were just running tests to see whether his digit span could be expanded. For four days he could not go beyond seven digits. On the fifth day he discovered his mnemonic system and then began to improve rapidly.† Faloon’s intellectual abilities didn’t change, the researchers say. Nor did the storage capacity of his short-term memory. Chase and Ericsson believe that short-term memory is a more or less fixed quantity. It reaches saturation quickly, and to overcome its limitations one must learn to link new data with material that is permanently stored in long-term memory. Once the associations have been made, the short-term memory is free to absorb new information. Shereshevskii transferred material from short-term to long-term memory by placing words along Gorky Street in Moscow. Faloon’s hobby was long-distance running, and he discovered that he could break down a spoken list of eighty digits into units of three or four and associate most of these with running times. To Faloon, a series like 4 , 0 , 1 ,2 would translate as four mi nutes, one and two-tenths seconds, or â€Å"near a four-minute mile†; 2, 1, 4, 7 would be encoded as two hours fourteen minutes seven seconds, or â€Å"an excellent marathon time.† When running didn’t provide the link to his long-term memory, ages and dates did; 1, 9, 4, 4 is not relevant to running, but it is â€Å"near the end of World War II.† Chase and Ericsson see individual differences in memory performance as resulting from previous experience and mental training. â€Å"In sum,† they write, â€Å"adult memory performance can be adequately described by a single model of memory.† Not every student of psychology agrees with Chase and Ericsson, of course. â€Å"I’m very suspicious of saying that everyone has the same kind of memory,† says Matthew Erdelyi, a psychologist at Brooklyn College. â€Å"In my research,† he says, â€Å"I find that people have very different memory levels. They can all improve, but some levels remain high and some remain low. There are dramatic individual  differences.† It is unlikely that there will be any agreement among psychologists on the conclusions that they have thus f ar drawn from their research. The debate about exceptional memory will continue. But in the meantime it is interesting to look deeper into the mind of a contemporary mnemonist. Ericsson and Poison, both of whom have tested Conrad over the past two years, believe that there is nothing intellectually outstanding about him. When they began testing Conrad’s memory, his digit span was normal: about seven numbers. His grades in college were average. Conrad himself says that he is unexceptional mentally, but he has compared his earliest memories with others’ and has found that he can recall things that many people can’t. His first distinct memory is of lying on his back and raising his legs so that his mother could change his diapers. As a high-school student he didn’t take notes in class—he says he preferred watching the girls take notes—and he has never made a list in his life. â€Å"By never writing down a list of things to do, and letting it think for me,† he says, â€Å"I’ve forced my memory to improve.† Conrad does believe that his powers of observation, including his ability to listen, are keener than most people’s. Memory, he says, is just one part of the whole process of observation. â€Å"I’m not extraordinary, but sometimes people make me feel that way. I watch them and realize how many of them have disorganized minds and memories and that makes me feel unusual. A good memory is nothing more than an organized one.’ One of the first things Conrad observed at Bananas was that the headwaiter, his boss, was â€Å"a very unpleasant woman.† He disliked being her subordinate, and he wanted her job. The only way he could get it was by being a superior waiter. He stayed up nights trying to figure out how to do this; the idea of memorizing orders eventually came to him. Within a year he was the headwaiter. â€Å"One of the most interesting things we’ve found,† says Ericsson, â€Å"is that just trying to memorize things does not insure that your memory will improve. It’s the active decision to get better and the number of hours you push yourself to improve that make the difference. Motivation is much more important than innate ability.† Conrad began his memory training by trying to memorize the orders for a table of two, then progressed to memorizing larger orders. He starts by associating the entree with the customer’s face. He might see a large, heavy-set man and hear â€Å"I’d like a big Boulder Steak.† Sometimes, Peter Poison says, â€Å"John  thinks a person looks like a turkey and that customer orders a turkey sandwich. Then it’s easy.† In memorizing how long meat should be cooked, the different salad dressings, and starches, Conrad relies on patterns of repetition and variation. â€Å"John breaks things up into chunks of four,† Ericsson says. â€Å"If he hears ‘rare, rare, medium, well-done,’ he instantly sees a pattern in their relationship. Sometimes he makes a mental graph. An easy progression—rare, medium-rare, medium, well-done—would take the shape of a steadily ascending line on his graph. A more difficult order—medium, well-done, rare, medium—would resemble a mountain range.† The simplest part of Conrad’s system is his encoding of salad dressings. He uses letters: B for blue cheese; /-/for the house dressing; 0 for oil and vinegar; F for French; T for Thousand Island. A series of orders, always arranged according to entree, might spell a word, like B-O-O-T, or a near-word, like B-O-O-F, or make a phonetic pattern: F-O-F-O. As Ericsson says, Conrad remembers orders, regardless of their size, in chunks of four, This is similar to the way Faloon stores digits, and it seems to support Chase and Ericsson’s contention that short-term memory is limited and that people are most comfortable working with small units of information. One of the most intriguing things about Conrad is the number of ways he can associate material. Another is the speed with which he is able to call it up from memory. Ericsson and Poison have also tested him with animals, units of time, flowers, and metals. At first, his recall was slow and uncertain. But with relatively little practice, he could retrieve these â€Å"orders† almost as quickly as he could food. â€Å"The difference between someone like John, who has a trained memory, and the average person,† says Ericsson, â€Å"is that he can encode material in his memory fast and effortlessly. It’s similar to the way you can understand English when you hear it spoken. In our tests in the lab, he just gets better and faster.† â€Å"What John Conrad has,† says Poison, â€Å"is not unlike an athletic skiil. With two or three hundred hours of practice, you can develop these skills in the same way you can learn to play tennis.† (1945 words) I Comprehension Quiz Choose the best way of finishing each statement, based on what you have just  read. 1. The psychology professor discovered John Conrad’s incredible ability to memorize: a. in school b. on a test c. in a restaurant 2. Conrad agreed to let the professor study his memory because: a. Conrad was interested in psychology b. Conrad wanted to increase his income c. Conrad needed to improve his memory 3. The famous Russian mnemonist Shereshevskii used a memory trick called loci to remember objects by: a. associating them with events in Russian history b. imagining them placed along a street in Moscow c. picturing each one in his mind in a different color 4. The memory trick used by Steve Faloon was the association of certain numbers with: a. running times b. important dates c. both the above d. none of the above 5. Conrad had been: a. a gifted student b. a below-average student c. an average student 6. Part of Conrad’s motivation for developing memory tricks to aid him as a waiter was: a. his desire to get his boss’s job b. his great admiration for the headwaiter c. his fear of not finding any work 7. Imagine that four customers have requested that their steaks be cooked in the following way: well-done, medium, medium-rare, rare. According to John Conrad’s â€Å"mental graph† technique, this order would be remembered as: a. a steadily ascending line b. a steadily descending line c. a mountain range 8. From this article a careful reader should infer that: a. everyone has about the same memory capacity and can develop a superior memory through practice and motivation b. a good or bad memory is an ability that a person is born with and cannot change to any great degree c. there is still no conclusive evidence as to whether outstanding memories are inborn or developed II Finding Support For or Against a Hypothesis As the article points out, some psychologists today believe that extraordinary memories are simply the result of development through hard work and the application of a system. According to them, an average person could achieve a superior memory if he or she tried hard enough. Find evidence from the article to support this hypothesis. Then find evidence from the article that goes against this hypothesis. What is your opinion of this controversial question?