The Manifestation Of Hedonism In Malaysian Entertainment Theology Religion Essay

The Manifestation Of Hedonism In Malayan diversion Theology morality EssayThe objective of this paper is to identify the accomplishments and point in time of hedonism in Malaysia. The study is conducted using secondary sources. The finding of this paper is indicated that hedonism occurs in Malaysian enjoyment industry via the excessive of motion-picture show persuasive advertizements and tremendous get along of h unmatchedsty show in local anesthetic boob tube.1. INTRODUCTIONEntertainment is all act uponivity that is designed to delight and, to a smaller degree, enlighten with the exhibition of the fortunes or misfortunes of otherwises, besides as well as through the display of limited skills by other and or self (Bates Ferri, 2010). It has been part of cultures. People from unalike cultures generate various slipway to entertain themselves. For instance, the traditional Malaysians tend to sport themselves by playing congkak, gasing and many more. Thus, merr iment has h whiztime(a) out the identity of ones culture. As the life goes on, entertainment and media industry have been developing since the introduction of electronic boob tube in the late 1920s (Maggie, 2008).How forever, this transformation has provideed to several impacts toward the local entertainment industry. For instance, the recent analysis on Malaysian entertainment in electronic media specifically has showed that this industry has adopted excessive element of horse opera cultures or in other word it has been westernized (Shriver, 2002). As a result of this process, or so local television programs tend to exhibit the element of hedonism implicitly. recent researchers have proved that one of the hedonic indispensablenesss is entertainment (OBrien, 2010). Hedonism fundamentally derived from the ancient Greek term which is hedon. It means delight, joy or thirst (Mees Schmitt, 2008). Hedonism as defined by Crisp (2006) is the view that human body process is motiv ated by a concern for the greatest expected rest period of joy over pain. Further, correspond to hedonist, what is groovy for any mortal is the pleasurable experience in ones life and what is painful considered as bad. in that locationfore, the life trounce for an individual is that with the greatest balance of enjoyment over suffering.Entertainment in IslamEntertainment in Islam is an issue which has been debated crosswise time. It has no certainty whether it is pr neverthelesst or permissible or in Islam is called dhan (.(. just, this issue should non be the reason Muslim being divided and separated. fit to Yusuf Al-Qaradawi in his news al-halal wa al-haram fi al-Islam, entertainment behind be permissible and prohibited accord the situation. It is nature of human being to be entertained and entertaining others. Entertainment is prohibited when it is associated with things which forbidden consequently it is prohibit. It is in line with an Islamic sound maxim which says what lead to haram than it is haram. With the advent of technology, the entertainment industry has flourished and become immensely popular. Combine this with the exponential advances in technology, and the result is an increase number of ways to amuse ourselves. According to Pahrol (2011) in Solusi, Entertainment in Islam generally displace be divided into two primary and secondary. Primary entertainment is the entertainment that is aims to pleasure bothah such as plea, zikr, reciting Al- script and more. Secondary entertainment on the other reach is entertainment that intends to please oneself in permissible way. Nonetheless, how Muslims scholars define entertainment? In Malaysia, the entertainment has its have guidelines or regulation to be followed. According to Perlis Islamic Legislation Council (1970) entertainment is include the singing and music with instruments or without that is permissible as long it is not against the few conditions i) The programs were organiz ed has grave benefits, ii) Dress modestly and cover themselves, iii) Not to mix boys and girls up to slipperiness and disobedience stimulate, iv) Lyrics quality and does not involvement with Islamic law and v) push through of performance that does not invite evil. If these guidelines is broken then it has reach the condition of prohibition or haram. Thus, from these conditions we should be cle ared whether the entertainment today is according to Islam or not. This fatwa was done on Malaysian culture but is it remedy applicable nowadays?2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMHedonism requires leisure time and private wealth. No nation in all of world history has ever been as hedonistic as the United States now is. Ameri backs now exceed more cash on pleasurable pursuits of all types than on religion and education combined (as cited in William S. Banowsky, 1969). Hedonism also occurs in Malaysia. Hedonism makes Muslims easy antedate for Christians, growing hedonism, materialism and liberal ism among Muslim have weakened their faith and do them easy for Christianization. (Malaysian insider 4 April 2012). Many research have been conducted to study hedonism, fiddling is know about the drive behind their behaviour. Thus it is necessity for a study to be conducted to identify the musing of hedonism especially in Malaysia.3. inquiry QUESTIONWhat are the effects of hedonism toward Malaysian entertainment?To what extent Malaysian society involve in hedonism?4. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE1. To identify the effect of hedonism toward Malaysian entertainment.2. To examine the degree of hedonism in Malaysian society.5.1 THE EFFECT OF HEDONISM IN THE CONTEXT OF MALAYSIAN ENTERTAINMENT.Malaysia is considered one of Islamic world around moderne and open societies. Although Malaysians fully embrace their own cultural and Asian set, influences from unusual cultures and values such as those of the West transmitted by the media are generally accepted. In Malaysia, these influences from th e media are considered part of the media globalization process. More influences from the West, which conflict with Asian values, began to be transmitted in forms of westbound television genres with the despatch of Malaysias first government controlled satellite television station in 1997. Although the centre is censored by the television station, there are still precise strong Western influences in these programs which invite the Malaysian audiences to adopt Western practices. Unconditionally, it may affect the nature of Malaysia entertainment and may lead to hedonism.All products have a certain degree of hedonism. This is because all products have whatever(a) degree of symbolic meaning that arouses at least some degree of hedonic motivations among individuals (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982a, 1982b Kleine, Kleine and Kernan, 1993 Schlosser, 1998). If products are varying in the extent of inherent symbolism, then one can expect that the hedonic value would vary across product cat egories. This is supported by research examining the extent of hedonism in different products (Batra and Ahtola, 1991 Bloch, Sherrell and Ridgway, 1986 Babin and Darden 1994 Lofman, 1991). Hedonic value across products seems to vary depending on the intrinsic and external attributes of the product (Dodds and Monroe, 1985).All products used advertisements to captivate buyer. Advertisements or commercials are an authorized aspect of television broadcast. Merrill,et al. (1994) indicated that television lives and dies by advertising because sponsors directly or indirectly provides all of the stations r stock-stillue. Generally, television makes wampum from advertising revenues. Thus, television station devote considerable effort to structure their programming in order to hold the larger desirable audience possible (Saenz, 2001). high and ranked program, for instance program with larger audience size, attract more advertisement compared to lower ranked program.Therefore, advertiseme nts play an important role to insert information to the lulu directly or indirectly. It may influence viewer thinking and behaviour. In relationship with the concepts of hedonism, this excessive exposure of persuasive advertisement may lead to the act of unnecessary handing of money. It is because frequent exposure may increase the likelihood of alteration in peoples perception toward the act of excessive spending. Those tempting advertisements may implicitly illustrate such inefficient act of using money as a means for to notice pleasure or to release their tension and stress.Based from this phenomenon, the tremendous increasing of entertainment industry meshing may clearly indicate the airlift of hedonic lifestyle among Malaysians without they realize it. Those people are actually blind by the motivation to satisfy their hunger for pleasure. Thus, they are allowing to spend huge amount of money just to watch their pet contestant win the show. However, without they realize , those irresponsible television station companies are actually manipulating these reality TV shows as a means to seize viewers money for the sake of their earnings.Psychological View on Effect of HedonismThis relates to behaviourism concept, as behaviourist James Watson (as cited in Elliot Covington, 2001) suggested that, pleasure and pain can be regarded as springs of action. He further that, pleasure can be considered as a tremendous reinforce and pain as the tremendous inhibitor of behaviour. In other word, the experience of pleasure may exemplify reinforcement for an individual to repeat a specific action. Meanwhile, the experience of pain may repre move the punisher for an individual to countermand the act. While according to Freud (as cited in Elliot Covington, 2001), he presumed that bit are like lower animals and constantly seek pleasure and avoid pain. He also viewed this hedonistic tendency as the motivational al-Qaida of psychodynamic and it is regulated automatic ally by the principle of pleasure (1939).Islamic side5.2 THE DEGREE OF HEDONISM IN MALAYSIAIn Malaysia, television is the most popular among components of media. It has become an indispensable household item and watching television is a bypast time activity (Rahmah, 1996). I supporting this nation, Media Guide (2004) indicates that among the media available in Malaysia, television is the most popular as it is able to reach 96% of adult population. Adult populations are those above 15 years old. mankind TV gains its popularity in the Malaysian television industry with the introduction of the super acclaimed American reality TV, Survivor in year 2000. After the success of the programme, Malaysia television industry has introduced its own local reality TV show, known as Explorace broadcast on TV3. The first season of the programme managed to attract an average of 2.3 one thousand one million million million viewers and was billed as one of the most successful reality adventure/ga me show programme in Malaysia (Utusan Malaysia, 23 February 2005). A turning point in the Malaysian television industry came with the creation of Akademi Fantasia (2003) broadcast on ASTRO. Akademi Fantasia is an adaptation of La Academia, one of the most successful musical/ singing talent reality TV show originated from Mexico (Utusan Malaysia, 7 August 2005). For the first time, ASTRO through Akademi Fantasia has created the first interactive TV phenomenon that became a huge craze to almost every aim of Malaysian society. Home and studio audience are invited to vote for their favourite contestants. Audience through short message service (SMS) vote were stipulation a hundred percent of deciding power to determine the achiever (Utusan Malaysia, 6 July 2005).The first season of Akademi Fantasia in 2003 drew in profits through the votes made by audiences throughout the nine weeks of the show. All-Asian Satellite tv set and Radio Operator (ASTRO) managed to collect 2.5 million ring git as a profit in return for their services to entertain the audience. In 2004, 15 million SMS were sent to ASTRO, and the profit made for the second season amounted up to 7.5 million ringgit, all made possible by the voting system created for the audiences (Utusan Malaysia, 6 July 2005).Psychological View on the Degree of HedonismIslamic Perspective6. Islamic PERSPECTIVESThe enemies have flocked towards us by using various approaches such as schools and credences, theories and philosophies, organizations and institutions, states and countries. They have all gathered to fight Islam and the Muslims. Some of them are drive by a hidden hatred and some by an old animosity. The Twentieth Century has witnessed one of the fiercest blows inflicted upon our Ummah by our enemy such the decompose of the Khilafah. They did not stop there but to the extent they went on to tutor Muslims with strange, foreign ideas and concepts, in order to confuse our arrest of our religion (Deen). once w e wake up and try to return to our original religion (Deen), we leave behinding be confronted with an intellectual perplexity, in which evil and good is mixed. Hence, the truth will be ambiguous and we will go astray, and lose the true understanding of Islam. It is clearly show in the philosophy of hedonism whereby it connotes the being pleasure is the net goal of human being aside that it is used for avoiding pain. According to psychoanalysis we are born with informal desire and the behaviourist tend to accept that we are promoted to hedonism due to reinforcement with the purpose of avoiding pain which is categorise as negative reinforcement. However, Islam does not put that ultimate desire or pleasure as the highest aim. We are born we informal desire but we can work or nurture it toward purity. Allah mentioned in the Quran that we are sent to this land to worship Him not to devote ourselves to that pleasure.I have merely created Jinns and men, that they may serve Me.( Az-zariyat 5156)Then, for this purpose Allah has sent prophets to educate people with the knowledge how to worship Him. The Pleasure of Allah, Mighty is He, is an objective in the lead which all other objectives diminish in importanceAnd Allah is recrudesce as regards fix in comparing to your reward, andmore lasting as regards punishment in comparison your punishment.(Surah Ta-Ha 20 73)Nevertheless, human being can seek pleasure as they want but within the boundary of Islam. According to Alias (2008) a lot of measures in the Quran defining or explaining about how we can use our sensation and perception to seek pleasure. It is our as His servant to cope with our responsibility by using this senses to seek permissible pleasure. As we know, we are granted by Allah with lust (nafs) which defines by Al-Ghazali (as cited in Najati, 1993) the powers of anger and sexual appetence in a human being. Although being has sexual appetite we not should only fuel ourselves with sexual activit ies but by educating it to pleasure only Allah. In addition, this only can be change but purifying ones heart. Imam Al-Ghazali and Ibn Qayyim (as cited in Najati, 1993) even mention that heart (Al-Qalb) is the regulator of the senses which if pure will make our perception cleaned and if it dark or ill-gotten than it can make our perception polluted. Allah mentioned,Have you seen the one who chooseth for his god his own lust?(Al-Furqaan2543)He followed his own lust. Therefor his parity is as the likeness of a dog if thou attackest him he panteth with his tongue out, and if thou leavest him he panteth with his tongue out(AlAraf7176)and about the person who controlled the passion of his ego god saysBut as for him who feared to stand before his Lord and restrained his soul from lust, Lo The garden will be his home(An Nazit7940-41)Hence, the total loyalty to desire or pleasure is not being accepted in Islam but we need to put our ultimate goal to only pleasure Allah. By pleasuring Al lah, the negative reinforcement which leads to seeking worldly pleasure will diminish because it is change by Allah with a lot of sustenance. As mentioned above, psychoanalysis only focus on sexual desire and hedonism explained about the turning away of pain. In Islam, as Allah stated in the Al-QuranAnd We send down of the Quran that which is healing and mercy for the believers, but it does not increase the wrongdoers except in loss(Al Isra1782)In this verse Allah reminds us that the cure of the pain is in the Al-Quran. In order to reduce or cure the illness it is better for human being to follow what has been prearranged by Allah SWT. In addition to that, the most important things in Muslim life are supplication. The importance of prayer actually mentioned by Allah Verily, prayer prevents from Al-fahsha(i.e. great sins of every kind, unlawful sexualintercourse etc.) and Al-Munkar (i.e disbelief, polytheism, and every kind of evil wicked deed etc.)(Al-Ankabut 2945)Hence, from this verse we can see that as psychoanalysis believed that human are born with sexual desire and they need to fulfil it by doing sexual related behaviour which if not done conflict will arise. However in Islam it is prohibited to do sexual related behaviour in illegal way such as adultery that is the effect of hedonism. Thus, prayer eventually is one of the medications that have been provided from Allah to human being. Allah addsO mankind There has come to you a good advice from your Lord (i.e. the Quran, ordering allthat is good and forbidding all that is evil), and a healing for that ( disease of ignorance, doubt.hypocrisy and differences, etc.) in your breasts, a guidance and a mercy (explaining lawful and unlawful things, etc.) for the believers.(Yunus 10 57)This verse mentioned the healing process that give into the breast. Breast here can be defined as heart. According to Murad (1985) heart is not only continent part of flesh in your body, but the centre of all your thoughts, em otions, motives, drives, aspirations, retrospection and attention. It can be softened and can be hardened. Allah statestheir hearts do soften to the celebration of Allah.s praises. Such is the guidance of Allah. He guides there with whom He pleases, but such as Allah leaves to stray, can have none to guide.(Az-Zumar 3923)Thence ahead were your hearts hardened They became like a rock and even worse in hardness. For among rocks there are some from which rivers gush forth others there are which when split asunder send forth piss and others which sink for fear of Allah. And Allah is not unmindful of what ye do.(Al-Baqarah 274)The Prophet also give tongue to narrated from Abu Numan Lo Verily, there is in the body a small piece of flesh if it is good the alone body is good and if it is corrupted the whole body is corrupted lo it is the heart.Thus, it is our responsibility to take a good carry on of our heart as it governs our body and mind. Therefore as Imam Al-Nawawi explained in al -Majmuaas for the knowledge of the heart, it is knowing the diseases of the heart, such as envy, conceit and the like. Imam al-Ghazali said in ihya ulumuddin Knowing the definition of these diseases, their causes and their cures, and remedies how to fix them, is personally obligatory (fard ayn) on every Muslim. Hedonism only can be taken care by turn back to the only source of Al-Quran and Al-hadith however, the questions is the Muslim and non-Muslim which do not know it. How can it be possible to overcome this matter? We need to bear in mind and heart that the Quran and prophet Muhammads Sunnah and teachings is not only for Muslims but to entire universe. As the prophet mentionedAbu verbalize al-Khudri, may Allah be pleased with him, reported that the Messenger of Allah (SAW) had said Whoever amongst you sees anything objectionable, permit him change it with his hand, if he is not able, then with his tongue, and if he is not even able to do so, then with his heart, and the latter is the weakest form of faith. Narrated by Muslim.This hadith actually explain the way of dealing with evil deeds and hedonism is one kind of evil deeds. First, it is the responsibility of the authority which has been commentary by Muslims scholars that the hand it the one who with power. For instance, the government of Malaysia should realize their task is not only do development but also to instill the faith or creed of Islam in Muslim specifically and society generally by doing some changes in entertainment industry, educational system and media. Second, the role of society is basically taken from the word tongue in the hadith. The society should not only talk about the issue but eventually take hazard to invite or promote good health lifestyle to their family and friends since hedonism only will lead to bad health lifestyle. Healthy lifestyle is not only limited to Muslims but also should be practiced by all races.7. CONCLUSIONAs discussed above the concern about manifestatio n of hedonism in Malaysia revolved around the effect and the degree of hedonic values in the Malaysian entertainment industry.

Fast Food Culture In China Cultural Studies Essay

steady Food Culture In china ethnical Studies Essay unbendable nutrition is the landmark disposed to viands that depose be nimble and served very quickly. Nowadays stiff nourishment has been known of the consentaneous world, and it has brought vast influences to the undivided world, including chinaware. immobile victuals, homogeneous(p) McDonalds and KFC, has come into mainland China for much than 30 years. It forms its own refinement gait by feel and appropriates great resultants to China. stead warm sustenance has been a very burning(prenominal) part to flocks life. This paper will analyze the validation and exploitation of exuberant- nutrition and the influences of spry diet nicety, and then summarize the enlightenment of loyal nutrient destination, the want ethnic localisation of function and right view of Fast aliment nuance. disclose words Fast regimen culture, effect, enlightenment1. Introduction check to Wikipedia, Fast nutriment is the term effrontery to feed that rear be prepared and served very quickly. While any meal with low preparation snip tramp be considered to be immediate nutriment, typic onlyy the term refers to fodder sold in a restaurant or store with preheated or precooked ingredients, and served to the customer in a packaged form for take- push through/take-away.The term turbulent food was recognized in a dictionary by Merriam-Webster in 1951.Fast food, which came divulge from McDonalds in the USA in 1950s, has brought vast influences to the whole world, including China. For a long fourth dimension it forms its own culture step by step and takes great effects to China. What does Fast-food culture mean? According to The Analysis of Fast Food Culture Status in China, it center quick, touristed, short-term pop. This paper will analyze the attractup and come upment of Fast-food and the influences of Fast food culture.2. The Formation and Development of Fast foodThe beginning of g ypedness a culture is learning its history. And the history of culture mainly includes its formation and using. How active the history of Fast food?2.1. Fast food in the USAAccording to Baidu, Fast food is originated from the USA. Fast food came out from McDonalds in the USA in 1950th at the beginning. At that age it practiced was sm tout ensemble restaurant with a table, several chairs and a tattered bless in a sm exclusively square without cover.All the things exist by selecting the superior and eliminating the inferior. In the cruel competition, McDonalds was survived and succeed. Foreigner like its convenient, then KFC, which founded in 1951 by Col sensationl Harland Sanders, and Pizza-hut, which founded in 1958 by Frank and Dan Camey, followed its steps and they formed the master area of Fast food. And it grew very luxuriant and had strong power. The reason why Fast food certain so fast is that the result of the buildment of the society.Nowadays the pace of life comp oses faster and faster, and having meals gather inms to become a trouble, a behavior of wasting measure. Beca engage of the reason batch begins to bang plenty the times for meals. And Fast food, a diverseness of delicious and convenient food, becomes very favourite and the accessible mainstream.2.2. Fast food in ChinaFast food came into China in the early of 1980s. And it received great success in a short time. At the beginning Fast food was popular in teenager, until now all the batch like to eat Fast food, such as the youthfulness and the old. But there are right rough differences that throng oftentimes wait for a line to buy Fast food. And it seldom happens in the USA. Some people speak out that Fast food is not fast. People realize that Fast food cannot save the time, sort of, clear much more time. However, closely people still like consume Fast food. Chinese people always love consume, and people think that Fast food center fashion. Further, people find F ast food is very delicious.For a while more or less mediums claim that Fast food is not unhealthy food and it can caused lots of health issues. The intelligence agency gave a big beat to Fast food, like McDonalds and KFC. But a silent period later, Fast food was active again with a new face-new advertisements and new reputes. Now people often go to McDonalds and KFC with whole family or closed friends to share the happiness and sorrow.In fact, Fast food, just intimately food is pocketed for taking away, has existed for a long time in China however people cannot realized it. In peoples mind, Fast food means McDonalds or KFC, actually the traditional snack bars beside the McDonalds or KFC similarly belong to Fast food. With the popular of the McDonalds or KFC, Chinese Fast food, like the traditional snack bar, besides has fast development, nevertheless limited by some resistance force.3. The influences of Fast food cultureFast food culture has brought huge influences to the whole world, including China. And some effects are irrefutable and some effects are controvert. The comparison of positive effects and banish effects of Fast food culture as follow3.1. corroboratory effects of Fast food cultureFast food culture takes some(prenominal) benefits to the whole world. It promotes the rapid development of society. And it takes positive effects to more areas, especially education.3.1.1. Easy and fast educationHow to judge a culture is wide-cut or bad? There are two rules champion is whether the culture beyond the mainstream of the period, the other is whether the culture can be accredited by most of the people. (, 2008) Fast-food culture is not simply the happiness and economic consumption, tho similarly is the most direct and the simplest way of education for the teenagers. And the culture takes some active effects to the view of the teenagers value.Fast food culture makes the teenagers value turn into the diversification. With the popular o f Fast-food culture, the view of democracy and wild open is instead of the old view of value. And the diversification of the value it is a great win to people. That is trade good for the growth of the teenagers. All scores of the value exist and develop together at the same time, it makes the peoples life become more extraordinary and people pay more attention to their life. In the case, the teenagers can learn more than before.Fast food culture uses the simplest way to transfer the cognition of the culture. It has not the strong power of the classical culture, and it also is not like a star, light forever. However, Fast food culture can use one way that all the people can accept to copiousten the luxuriant and depth of the affable culture. And that can cut down the aim of education and make all the assorted people can make up one quick way to learn the culture. The teenagers can be overlook of the plenty of the knowledge and culture and it can provide has resulted in the popularity of incarnate intranets. (, 2008)3.1.2. An innovation in other areasAccording to The Inheritance of Chinese interior(a) Music From Fast Food Culture, Fast food in the early 80s in the 20th century, introduced into China at the beginning of the 21st century, with the fast food family words of the continually growing, fast food is not only affecting the restaurant industry, cultural industry, and spread to the political, educational, family life and other industries. Chinese folk medicinal drug has also been affected by fast food culture, resulting in fast food medicament.Chinese folk music and fast food times in Modern Music has a different target, the contents of different forms. Chinas Hong Kong and Taiwan music, horse opera music, Chinese traditional music is not incompatible, the key is that they contain the essential elements they convey, the performance of the thoughts or feelings, to what the audience can influence and nurture. It just gives people the subtle influence of good it had the value of universe of discourse.The development of folk music history cannot be cut off. Any Age of music is inseparable from the inheritance of traditional music any nation cannot abandon the nation and re- out. At the same time, we also recognize that any kind of good traditional music, only with the forward motion of the times, constantly discarded, modified and updated to maintain its vitality in order to chew over the vivid contemporary life, and give the inexhaustible drive to real life. Although the exit of fast-food culture to some extent affected our nations cultural inheritance and development, entirely it also gives our countrys workers work in the heritage of folk music sounded the alarm. come to that the fast food culture is a derivative of the times, its emergence and development of their existence is required. People should keep the development point of view to see this problem, select the essence and discard the dross, in order to come down Chinese folk music better.3.2. Negative effects of Fast food cultureWhile Fast food culture takes positive effects, it also takes some negative effects which cannot be ignored. ulcerated food is a big problem of Fast food, because of this, some dirt-cheap culture has come out.3.2.1. Unhealthy foodFast food brings conveniences to peoples life, at the same time, it brings some health issues. According to Wikipedia, According to the Massachusetts Medical society delegacy on Nutrition, fast food is especially last in fat content, and studies concord found associations between fast food intake and change magnitude body mass index (BMI) and system of weights gain. A 2006 theater of operations federal official monkeys a diet consisting of a similar level of Trans fats as what a person who ate fast food regularly would consume. Both diets contained the same overall number of calories. It was found that the monkeys who consumed higher(prenominal) level of Trans fat develope d more abdominal fat than those fed a diet rich in unsaturated fats. They also developed signs of insulin resistance, which is an early indicator of diabetes. later on six years on the diet, the trans fat fed monkeys had gained 7.2% of their body weight, compared to just 1.8% in the unsaturated fat group.The director of the corpulency program for the ChildrenHYPERLINK http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childrens_infirmary_BostonHYPERLINK http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childrens_Hospital_Bostons Hospital Boston, David Ludwig, claims that fast food spending has been shown to increase calorie intake, promote weight gain, and elevate risk for diabetes. The Centers for Disease Control and Pr purgetion ranked obesity as the number one health threat for Americans in 2003. It is the indorse bleeding cause of preventable death in the United States and results in 400,000 deaths each year. About 60million American adults are classified advertisement as being obese with another 127million being ove rweight. wellness issues associated with obesity causes economic despair regarding health help. According to a 2003 study conducted by RTI International in North Carolina, the cost of health care in America is said to increase by $93 one thousand thousand a year, mainly from Type 2 diabetes and heart disease, both associated with obesity. lush calories are another issue with fast food. According to B. Lin and E. Frazao, from the Department of Agriculture, states the fate of calories which attribute to fast-food consumption has increased from 3% to 12% of the total calories consumed in the United States. A regular meal at McDonalds consists of a well-favored Mac, volumed fries, and a large Coca-Cola drink quantitying to 1430 calories. A diet of approximately 2000 calories is considered a healthy amount of calories for an broad(a) day (which is different depending on several factors such as age, weight, height, physical activity and gender).Besides the dangers of Trans fats, hi gh calories, and low fiber, there is another health risk, food poisoning. In his view as Fast Food Nation The Dark Side of the All-American Meal, Eric Schlosser describes in earthy detail the process of meatpacking. shopping mallpacking has become one of the most uncivilized jobs in America, with the risk of injury being 3 times higher than any other factory work. The meatpacking factories concentrate livestock into large feedlots and herd them through processing assembly lines operated by poorly train employees increase the risk of large-scale food poisoning. Manure gets mixed with meat, soiled it with salmonella and Escherichia coli 0157H7. E. coli 0157H7 is one of the worst forms of food poisoning. Usually spread through undercooked hamburgers, its uncontrollable to treat. Although antibiotics kill the bacteria, they release a toxin that produces hurtful complications. About 4% of people infected with E. coli 0157H7 develop hemolytic uremic syndrome, and about 5% of childre n who develop the syndrome die. E. coli 0157H7 has become the leading cause of renal failure among American kids.In a research experiment done by Pediatrics, 6,212 children and adolescents ages 4 to 19years old were examined to find out some information about fast food. After interviewing the participants in the experiment, it was discovered that on a given day 30.3% of the total sample have reported to have eaten fast food. Fast-food consumption was prevalent in males and females, all racial/ethnic groups, and all regions of the country. Children who ate fast food, compared with those who did not, consumed more total fat, carbohydrates, and sugar-sweetened beverages. Children who ate fast food also ate less fiber, milk, fruits, and non-starchy vegetables. After reviewing these test results, the researchers concluded that consumption of fast food by children seems to have a negative effect on an individuals diet, in ways that could significantly increase the risk for obesity.3.2.2. Dirt-cheap cultureAccording to most peoples views, fast food culture is equivalent to junk culture and cultural content of thin, neglect of nutrition. The reason why people criticize cultural fast food, is mainly on account of its negative impact. Because of cultural fast food categories in all cultures, it has the strongest commercialization, and best-selling, so it is most popular to company. Some people, for earning big bills, only one-sided pursuit of cheer and sensory stimulation, to satisfy the desire, ultimately it fall into the trap of bad culture. American philosopher Daniel Bell said The cultural transformation of modern society generally due to the rise of mass consumption. the consumer of Fast food culture obstinate it must be market-oriented, catering to popular consumer tastes. They seem overwhelming, in fact, change with graphic sexual content, non-historic, no depth, which has self destruction, fast speed but rotten. Fast food culture makes junior people app ear tangled in values, the gradual degradation of aesthetic taste and cultural storage area to the low-level decline.Seeking speed abandon quality is easy to lead hedonistic, decadent value orientationWith the faster of life, peoples behavior seek for speed, accent mark on time, peoples thinking emphasizes simplicity. People do everything quickly life seems to lack a stable deep meaning. To abandon the old for the new becomes the favourite of the people. People are long for the easy to trylessly rich and commodious life, longing for granted pleasure. People are more willing to be on the couch motion picture and music to bring a more relaxed sensory stimulation to spread the literature, romantic novels, martial liberal arts fiction to look for spiritual fast food in all places of entertainment to while away blank time. Those who own the publishing for avail business, aiming at the markets hot spots, to take quick tactics that make money strive to create the entertainment, lei sure, Bo people smile to the fast food call books. Fast food culture is not only filled in the adult, but also among immature people set off a wave after a wave of heat. Vulgarizations of cultural products affect young peoples value of objective knowledge and judgments, so that some young people have a spiritual hedonism and decadent material values. On studying, many students wallow in the network and internet games in peacetime, no time to study. When text coming, they often study in a hurry or even cheat in test. They always have no inspiration on mind except enjoyment.In Fast food culture environment, quick success is easy to form in the values of young people. In Fast food culture quick successes often become the trend. Fast food culture is not just the people or culture entertainment consumption, but rather reflects a kind of stylish life and values. Its commercial, market characteristics and the pursuit of material desires embodied and sensory enjoyment cultural environmen t, it is easy to values and behavior of people brought money idolize and the utilitarian characteristics. (, 2008)4. The enlightenment of Fast food cultureAccording to the formation and development of Fast food culture in China and the influences of Fast food culture, people can get some enlightenment. Cultural kettle of fish is the biggest enlightenment. And people should keep a right view of Fast food culture.4.1. Cultural localizationIn the era of globalization, it has been recognized as an efficacious marketing system to consider the local culture and values. McDonalds and KFC, as international companies are successfully into Chinese market which has different culture and values and has achieved great success. The best way is to take all the cultural strategy of localization of advertisement and measure. (, 2007)Chinese place eating in an all- in-chief(postnominal)(prenominal) position, eating has become indispensable in Chinese culture is an consequential part. Although the food culture in the West not developed enough, but still reflects the typical characteristics of their culture. Therefore, we can contrast between Chinese and westbound food culture. Practices in the food, the Chinese traditional food practices are the main vegetable. Staple food is grain, vegetables complementary feeding, plus a small amount of meat, while most of the ancient Chinese believed in Buddhism, and eating vegetarian. Westerners, adhering to a nomadic, seafaring people of the cultural origin, to fishing and hunting, causeing mainly to the collection, cultivation, supplemented, Meat more. These cultural differences food, McDonalds, KFC to change the structure of a single food, Chinese food taste better than the weaknesses, continue to introduce all kinds of thought out of new varieties of the Chinese population. In Kentucky, Crispy Strips is added in fresh cowardly wings, star anise, cinnamon, sesame oil and other traditional Chinese seasoning, win the praise of consumers Chinese style, French fries can be describe as East meets West popcorn chicken as the consumers, a new leisure choice in addition to cola beverages, well-off drinks, also according to the Chinese people balanced diet of eating habits has launched the Hibiscus fresh vegetable soup, mustard pork soup. Even more immobilize is that KFC restaurants in Guangdong, they even sell to local customers herbal tea. McDonalds launched KFC in China has not so much food, or made their own attempts, in 2004 McDonalds first taste of Chinese products, rice burgers launched in Taiwan, is a heat chicken or beef with cabbage and made of lettuce, two slices jolly after baking and flavoring of rice cake between. It is an important that the localization of foreign products is un uncertainnessedly the fast-food restaurants under the Chinese culture and adjusts its marketing strategy. (, 2005) generalize campaign highlight the traditional of Chinese family values. First, according to some adve rtisement, Western fast food is mostly to attract semipublicity at the time the largest consumer groups of children. The sound of joyful music, Ronald McDonald and Colonel Grandfathers smiling face became their selling point. But with the growing size of enterprise, consumer groups diversification, foreign fast food advertizing has become progressively prominent in Chinese traditional concept of family values, because the value of the Chinese people in the You group orientation, attention to blood relatives of the family relations and family concept. In McDonalds 12 advertising, there are five whose background is either one or both parents and children in the family, outdoor play and dining scene. accompanied by lively music, humorous plot, those create a relaxed, warm and blissful family life situation. KFCs web site in 30 video ads have nine to happy family life is as attractive sight. On the other hand, in the reform and opening up of the situation, now China began to gains ay old ideas, more and more groups of young people requested precaution from the absolute freed. They made a bold innovation, the concept of a hotshot of competition, focus and improve self-awareness, participation and also look forward to great cultural experience across the nation.I like (Im lovint) is McDonalds latest advertising terms. I like advertising the promotion in McDonalds history is an important milestone in McDonalds for the first time at the same time, more than 120 countries around the world together with the same set of ads, with a message for note promotion. These ads will experience the culture and consumer products linked given more significance than the product itself.Public relations also indispensableness localization. Public relations is a function, its goal is to be effective with a variety of public relations to manage the organizations image and credibility. Good public relations will help shape the relatively stable, credible, approachable brand imag e. KFC entered China since 1997, are different each year to project the Chinese cities, regional childrens education. According to statistics, in recent years KFC use for young people direct and indirectly in China, the cause of education and social welfare payments nearly 20 million yuan. Set up in Chinas largest special fund for public welfare, the dawn of Chinas KFC Fund, since the official launch in November 2002 has been to four cities in 16 universities received funds to poor students. In the fight against SARS, the death of health care workers, called McDonalds stores participate in Chinas entire network to support Yao Ming and other Chinese Red Cross Society initiated the fight against SARS in the public fund-raising activities. It should be said that these public service activities and the traditional Chinese morality love mercy, coincides with the concept of social commitment, but also make people have some sense of identification with them on emotion.(, 2007)In fact, th e fact, the success of the cultural localization of McDonalds and KFC in China, gives Chinese people a big enlightenment. No person learns about them than themselves. Chinese Fast food should be got a big support and be popular with all Chinese people. Only Chinese people can learn about the true Chinese values and take Chinese Fast food be well known of the whole world.4.2. Right view of Fast food cultureAccording to the abridgment of Fast food culture status in China, Fast food culture is often described as the pursuit of quick, popular, short-term pop, but often ignores the profound accumulation and intrinsic value of cultural trends and cultural phenomena. Fast-food culture, fast and violent, penetrates every corner of daily life, full of cultural and even infiltrate to the academic community.Fast food culture in the field of study needs a major cultural product, but it is not the prove classics in the cultural market, but it can adapt to the changing requirements of the mark et, which is needful for people to enjoy real-time culture thing. There is no doubt fast food culture is the product of the development of market economy. Therefore, the rationality of the market economy is the necessity of such cultural forms produced.Fast-food culture in the high-speed operation of the economy market, some people just start running around in circles, together with the commercial effect of those directly emergence of fast food culture which has led some to breed the impetuous attitude, and people want to instant profits. That is, at the beginning of fast food in a economy market, some people scarcely taste to sit down for a long time and naughtily thought that painstaking and profound cultural works. They demanded the immediate enjoyment, and saves time and effort things.This attitude works against the requirements of fast-food culture is swanky. That has driven some intellectuals to create fashionable cultural products. Fashion needs the speed, if it is fast, there will be a lot of things that appear shallow, that is fast food culture by the undeniable shortcomings.However, the fast food culture is not only a deficiency. The look of fast food culture proves that it adapts to a fast-paced life, and it also can have some adjustment effect to the stress in the rasping competition, agitated mental state. Communities to diversify accelerate the pace of life, increased leisure and fast food culture is the inevitable.Most of Chinese people often learn something from the bad view at first. It is not a good habit to learn things and it can make a big slide to judge things. Chinese people should learn things from different views. That can make people keep a right view of things. Here Chinese people should keep a right view of Fast food culture.5. ConclusionAll in all, Fast food culture has brought huge influences to the whole world. And fast food does not mean a kind of food any more, that is some way of life, some value of life. The existenc e of fast food culture tells the whole world the fact that it can satisfy the needs of the society and its existence must be the inevitable of the development of the society. People should keep the right view to see the Fast food culture. Chinese people should catch the useful values of Fast food culture, like Culture localization. People can learn about themselves better through others minds. According to this point of view, Chinese Fast food will have a bright future and be all known of the whole world.

The conceptual framework of feminism

The abstract framework of libber move handstThe conceptual framework of wo handss liberation move man federal agencyt, as a ultraconservative ideology, basic in ally consists of spring, char char char, repairs, and equality. The same sack be said of Afri erect womens lib, which has on its priority list such goals as self-determination, which suck economic everyplacetones fasten on a materialistic metaphysic. African womanism, despite its pretensions to showking co-operation or its advocacy for interdependency amidst men and women, uses a model of conscientisation of women that is overseas to Africa, and runs the risks of obscurantism, vulgarism, inau whereforeticity, and irrelevance. To vomit up it cryptically, African womanism cant emergency and cant non want men at the same clipping. Although cozy urge has made tremendous strides in conscientising women ab stunned their plight vis--vis young-begetting(prenominal)-dominance, its future in Africa necessitys that it re- come pop itself appropriately. At least it essential re-think triad theories, that is, the labour theory, economic theory, and well-disposed theory.Africas contemporary socio- policy-making scene depicts speculative and practical sloppiness of sexual activity with womens lib or, for that matter, grammatical sexuality with broad emancipatory movements, such as African womanism, which nonetheless use sex theory as an knowing tool for minute analysis for the purportedly discriminatory cordial, ghostlike and policy-making organisational structures. Feminist thinkers loathe these structures because they see in them deliberate mechanisms for oppressing or marginalising women. This oppression of women characterises the save economic inegalitarianism in a masculine-dominated status quo. Consequently, it is debated that these male-founded and male-dominated structures can only be removed so as to render them balanced or equitable if and only if revolutionary measures atomic number 18 employed. The frequent elements of such arguers progress to a categorize of people called womens liberationist ideologues. Feminist ideologues be those people, male and female, minority or majority in one country, who ploughshargon the ideas or beliefs or attitudes of male-dominance over women. They tend to look at society in one way they atomic number 18 present-day(prenominal)ly unhappy, dissatisfied and critical of what they see around them as compared to what they would like to see. The rational justification of their discontent and critical attitude is quite a nonher thing. Insofar as womens lib comprises people, who share one set of ideas or Where is the hindquarters of African sexuality?beliefs or attitudes as a group or community and who are (radically) organised, feminist movement is an ideology,1 which is posited to displace the reign male-dominated ideology. It is the amount of money of an ideology or the ideological core, whic h is the to the highest degree difficult part to change because it is the worldview of the people. The ideological core consists of the core ideas, core beliefs, or core attitudes of a people. By implication, if the core ideas, beliefs, or attitudes are purged out then the peoples practical verity is annihilated. The revolutionary spirit is relevant to any libber ideologue because he or she believes that stretch outing and effectual change must be object lesson and ingenious. These detested moral and intellectual values are in-built in society so that their removal or reduction calls for a drastic revolutionary overhaul of the whole amicable fabric. This drastic revolutionary overhaul of society must be no less than a critique of the accustomed ideology because it purports to subject to intellectual scrutiny, and even outtually refute or reject prevailing ideas, beliefs, or attitudes, which are rationally unjustified or prejudicial to the position of women in society. And then libber ideology purports to create its own better ideas, beliefs, or attitudes. In other words, feminist ideology creates its own counter-consciousness, and eventually its own counterculture. This counterculture comprises a new set of beliefs and a new style of life that is think or hoped to challenge and eventually expose the inadequacy of the prevailing culture. scarcely when the ideological core of the prevailing culture is removed and replaced by a new ideological core can lasting and effective change occur. Any change less than that involving the ideological core is superficial or transitory.In a nutshell, feminism challenges the prevailing status quo and develops a counter-ideology that questions the prevailing status quo and then attempts to modify it. womens lib advocates change rather than parliamentary procedure. It criticises the regime in provide and existing favorable and economic arrangements. It advances schemes for restructuring and reordering society. It generates policy-making movements in the form of womens movements in order to gain enough power and decide to effect the changes it advocates. Feminism is an ideology of action for it motivates people to demand changes in their lifestyles and to modify the existing favorable, religious, political, and economic relations. It also mobilises its followers and adherents to celebrate what they value.2 Ultimately, feminism is political and revolutionary. The revolutionary tinge of feminism has historically at whiles sanctioned the use of violence,3 which has not precluded bloodshed.Gender thinking adopts this feminist stance, with little or no modification or retouching and with few or no disclaimers, so that it is conventional gender thinking to posit men as the perpetrators of female-oppression and discrimination in a society which is viewed as male-dominated, a society in which this sad scenario is ingrained in the fabric of the prevailing political regimes, and where the soci al, religious, political and economic relations and structures are arranged so as to embrace and promote inequality between men and women. The dissolvent is that the gender paradigm centrally addresses the problems of equality and liberty rights, more(prenominal) or less zeroing on a variant of welfare-state ideology. Gender thinkers see no need to take caution in distinguishing gender-ism from feminism. Feminism is taken for give as the appropriate seed and vehicle of gender. In contemporary literary circles, the philosophical presuppositions of gender thinking and formula are not put to a litmus test because testing gender implies testing feminism, which, in any case, has withstood many a crucial test as demonstrate by its record of persistence and triumph peculiarly in europium, commodious Britain, America, Canada, and Australia. This being the case, the cogency of popular gender-isms can only be tested, or critiqued, against cross-cultural objectivity. This paper argues that the lack of demarcation between gender and feminism leads to confusion of westbound sandwich feminism with gender. By grounding itself in feminist ideology, gender inherits close of the weaknesses and short personal credit lines of occidental feminism. Gender finds its impetus and modes of expression in Hesperian feminism. Therefore, Africa necessarily to rethink a specific gender, which is appropriate to the African incident in this new millennium.Conceptual analysis of gender and feminism becomes a problem for a start because there is a superfluity of such offers on the contemporary intellectual and political scenes. Below, only surviving literature is reviewed on the question of gender and feminism in Malawi and elsewhere in Africa. In the case of Malawi, only a few deputy papers are considered. Any other contributions outside these papers are nonetheless worthwhile but very likely to be implicitly implicated and/or critiqued in one or more of the proxy papers. Th e choice of the papers is free and deliberate social philosophy, education, religion, and environment, i.e., unarguably, more or less of the hottest beds of gender debates and activism.At this juncture, it should be appreciated that African intellectuals declare for round time tried to conceptualise gender and feminism in their own situation. As far as philosophical writing is concerned in Malawi, Hermes Chidammodzi was116 Where is the Foundation of African Gender?the first to notice and then critique this confusion between gender and feminism in the mid-nineties.Feminism is a consecration of the moral and intellectual and hence universal values of equality purportedly denied of women by the dominance of males over women and the sacrosanct ideologies developed in society to decriminalise and perpetuate male-dominance. Thus conceived, feminism as a westbound ultraconservative and sacrosanct ideology is not African in origin and outgrowth so that the contemporary gender idiom is not a wide-cut theoretical framework and expression of the paradigm of African gender. This construing of gender invokes three important melodic themes (1) Gender does not mean and is not women. (2) Gender emerges in a specific situation depicting inegalitarianism embedded in social structures where one sex (male or female) is on the losing side. (3) Gender is a social construct of sets of behaviours, dispositions, ideas, beliefs, values, and attitudes of man and woman. (4) Gender has a strong materialistic tendency, for it suit womens qualities or modes of action in womens daily lives in a spatio-temporal-specific election base presumably conditioned by a sexual portion of labour. Insofar as it is situationally embedded in the societys power relations, gender is a reaction to constructed, i.e. real or imagined, male- dominance and female subordination. Gender gum olibanum conceived becomes an outgrowth from feminism.28 The explanation of feminism is marked by dickens go als equality and rights. Pioneer American feminists like Susan Anthony and Elizabeth Stanton had to battle it out with men for their right to vote as equals with men by dint of creation. In the years of old, encompassingism provided the initial momentum toward the release of women from social bondage. To womens disappointment, many a revolution (like the American Revolution in 1776 and the French Revolution in 1789) and patriotism did not specifically rescue them from subjugation by men. Social inequalities go on to prevail in the new and independent states. Britain, America and the Continent of Europe clearly illustrate the sluggish pace of women liberation progress Switzerland is the last European democracy to grant women suffrage in 1971.Despite the universality of female subordination and male domination, the African womans situation is bound to cast her suspicious of western feminist discourse, which is mostly the experience of the twentieth vitamin C middle-class woman i n an industrial sexual division of labour. For the western woman of that era it was only natural for her to cry for balance of power. The feminist excite was a fight for power. She made lots of gains her emancipatory efforts bore her more equality with men, more rights, and easier access to resources, increase in opportunities or incentives, especially in the public sphere.The yardstick was always her more perquisited male counterpart in the already privileged middle-class. In labour, this historicity of western feminism has led to the misconception that women were solely fighting for the soft or top jobs such as company executive, manager, prime minister, parliamentarian, physician, news editor, professor, pilot surprisingly, the women never zealously fought for rough jobs such as undertaker, trench-digger, dockyard worker, heavy industrial worker, soldier,30 or night-guards.In its counter-critique, western feminism penetrated the rough jobs eventually, the west saw more women eng ineers, women soldiers, and policewomen, indeed virtually transforming western society into a unisex club. In the inter-war period, and much more vehemently after W.W.II, feminist thinkers zeroed on marriage as the champion of female subordination, and so they strongly argued that the demolition of the marriage debut would automatically lead to total women liberation. It was then a convening spectacle for a woman feminist to be decidedly non-married, although she could be attached and have children. Domesticity, child rearing, or whatever family life stands for, was looked upon as an impediment to women date and participation in public life, especially to public employment. The feminist propaganda so narrowly construed was reduced to a feminist fight for space and time in the public spheres of life especially the workplace, which was supposed as a pre predominately male territory. Two concepts dominated and still dominate the western conceptual framework.Western gender categori es dismally fail to provide a gender conceptual framework for the African woman. For instance, the category of power cannot be utilise to conceptualise gender in Africa. To argue that a certain prescriptive concept like power has a gender implication is to claim that its social usage, at least in part, is not what it ought to be for reasons that have to do with gender To claim further that the usage does not prevail universality and objectivity, due to considerations of differing hermeneutics, i.e. interpretation as grounded in historicity and scope is not to advocate gender scepticism. Although the empirical realities of women world-wide are different, this paper argues for the forsaking of gender exclusivity in the face of equally competing, urgent and appealing discourses of, say, ethnicality, racism, and class.In western traditional masculinist literature, power is viewed as repressive, poured from a leviathan above to his subjects below. The subjects are said to need the p owerful leviathan because without him, they lack security, peace and well-being. In that western literary world, power is evidently and firmly associated with the male and masculinity, like virility, hence evoking the physicality of power. The correlate of man, woman, is and so powerless.So when feminists wrote about power over our bodies and power of our lives they were using the very same concept of power, which pervaded traditional masculinist discourses on power. They affirmed the male conceptualisation of power rather than providing an alternative. It comes to us as no surprise that contemporary gender thinkers mimic the same masculinist whim of power in theorising gender. They are not wary of historical, social and political situation of intimacy-claims.32 Trapped in their own ideological cocoon, the western feminist women still think that western rationality is the only rationality that western science is superior to other forms of rationality (if any), so that in go ste ady to, say, family planning strategy, African women have to be helped by their more scientific counterparts from the west.African women, so claim the western women, need to be conscientised because it is feared that the African women have internalised the oppression or suffering and therefore are in desperate need of awareness campaigns by women animators from the west. The western feminists already fall prey to the yet another ideology of dominance they vehemently fight in their own backyard.Western feminists are totally oblivious to the realness of subject-object relations in research the reality the helper and the helped are equals as they each experience the other from the viewpoint of their own situations and background knowledge and cultures. Each one (the helper and the helped) is the object of experience of the other so that objectivity is somehow tainted with subjectivity.31 Oshadi Mangena argues likewise that if one is oversolicitous to deflexions of ethnic origin, sex ual orientation and class, the notion of gender disintegrates into fragments and cannot anymore be employed as a useful category. turn over K. Lennon and M. Witford, Knowing the rest feminist perspectives in epistemology, London Routeldge and Kegan Paul, 1994, pp. 275-282.32 Annette Fitzsimons and Susan Strickland, Ibid. pp. 124 265.129 Nordic journal of African StudiesThat the helper enjoys the exclusive right to the objectification of knowledge of the Other is an ingrained feature of western cross-cultural research, after all the helper has scientific skills or rational advantage over the helped, and this ontological arrangement assimilate the helped redundant in the objectification of knowledge of the Other. The only danger though is that the result helpers knowledge is partial or fragmentary. The implication is that western feminists cannot emancipate the supposedly un-conscientised African women.2.2.2 adult femaleJust as the concept of human, as narrowly presented in weste rn literature, fails to command objectivity, the same literature fails to define woman. Woman is amenable to many different things it is shrouded by ambiguities about its ontological status. It can evoke intrinsic characteristics, like caring and love, but this smacks of essentialism, which does not have many adherents in gender mainstreams. It can also evoke familial relationships as the non-male member. Both of these evocations partially conceive woman for they are prescriptive since they are descriptive of a set of social facts or relations. As such, woman has no characterizable content and hence the challenge from postmodernist thought that woman is not descriptively adequate since, it is observed, woman is cross-culturally different.According to postmodernists, woman imposes unity over empirical reality.33 Postmodernism rejects the Enlightenment and the humanist presumptions of wonders of reason. The Enlightenment is spurned because of its veneration of masculine reason at the expense of sensuality humanitarianism is rejected because of its appeals to universal subjectivity or the human condition. Instead of desire sameness postmodernism celebrates distinction, partiality and multiplicity. It detests the search for coherence and hankering after the right (or Platonic or Kantian) solution.Postmodernist feminism equally opposes a hermeneutic parochialism of the present over the prehistorical or vice versaof searching for a single given goal, a single representation of reality. This new crisscross of feminism transcends the historicist recognition of the inevitable peculiarity and contextuality of human thought and practice and hence it advocates the continuity of dialogue between interlocutors, between text and interpreter, and between subject and object, with no advantage, marked goal or reality. This postmodernist re-orientation of feminism is a deliberate step away from essentialism and universalism marginalisation and exclusion of the Other.34 It puts tension on particularity and multiplicity with due attention to difference, diversity and locale. unless postmodernists also impose a tough demand on gender thinkers why should the absence of facts for33 See Alessandra Tanesini, Ibid. pp. 211-212.34 See Susan Strickland, Ibid. pp. 266-7.130 Where is the Foundation of African Gender?description of woman precludes the claim for the notion of woman, even where the possession of the notion may not warrant the description or analysis of the same?Even the points of intersection point of feminism and postmodernism are not adequate grounds for their formulation of their purported commons aims because their concept-lingualities are different. For example, their meanings of a concept like difference are different. In postmodernism, difference is acknowledged as typical of human experience oecumenic it is at the same time evaded as a threat to preponderating perspectives of understanding or interpreting reality. It is consistent wit hin postmodernism to demonstrate that woman was all along acknowledged as different but was include in universal humanity in name only by the dominating men. Feminists believe that the dominant ideology in world memoir is the root cause of the subjection of women by men. In Rousseaus language of right, the license of western woman, albeit noticeably incomplete as we enter the third millennium, began as late as mid nineteenth century.However, feminism does not argue for the mere acknowledgement of difference womens experience and perspectives should be noticed and comprehend along with dominant male experience and perspectives. Feminists complain bitterly that that the dominant perspectives are exclusive of women because they are ideological and hence false, since they are fire and distorted. Feminists are not content with their inclusion in or numeric addition to universal humanity as read in liberal or Marxist theories. Whereas postmodernism stops at the recognition of differen ce, feminism posits difference as a challenge, a paradigm of its critical dialogue with its situation, past, present and future.The concept woman is thrown into serious incertitude because the notion of gender itself is slowly moulding due to its clannishness. What is being advocated instead of gender is a multiplicity of identities for instance, if one widens ones horizon, one cannot fail to realise that differences of ethnic origin and class, sexual orientation (gays and lesbians), should be priority items on the liberation agenda. In spite of its usefulness in certain emancipatory projects, woman as a gender category stands to question now because it has dawned on contemporary gender thinkers that woman is essentially embedded in misogynist literature and that it is conducive to, and promotes, exclusionary practices.In short, a feminist survey of western languages shows that the meaning of some words, such as power, woman, human, reason, depicts gender bias against women the wo rds are not universal. The concept-lingual sources of western rightist discourses, like feminism, are liberalism or Marxism in their bestial attack of their respective archrivals, authoritarianism, and capitalism. Ironically, Karl Marx did not directly address the specific situation of women. He presumed that his communism would provide liberation for women just as it would for all the exploited masses and underprivileged minorities, male and female.131 Nordic Journal of African StudiesFriedrich Engels (Marxs lifetime friend, economic guardian, co-author, and Marxs editor) also narrowly attributed women subjugation to property relationships of the connubial family only in capitalist societies he remained mute on the reality of their enslavement in non-capitalist societies including communism and matriarchal societies. Marxism and capitalism cannot be believable concept-lingual sources for the gender movement in the new millennium since both of them are ideologies of conflict the y pit man against man the state exploits the proletariat-worker in the former, whereas the capitalist boss exploits the labourer in the latter.The importance of authentic concepts of gender of necessity to be stressed. More importantly, the crucial concept of power needs to be unambiguously stipulated in contemporary gender thought and practice.The feminism of the mid-seventies and 1980s correctly revealed that the concepts that are presented to us as universal and trans-historically sound actually embody male biases. For example, normative concepts such as reason, science and knowledge fail to pass the gender universalisation test, so to say. Even if these normative concepts embody ideals and express values, they nonetheless prescribe and evaluate behaviour in male-perspectives and so the values they express and ideals they embody are far from universal.prescriptive concepts function as descriptions of the endorsements of a specific society, and are faithful to past usage. Hence the complaint that feminism has taken the experience, i.e. marginalisation, of white middle class women to be representative of all women. The glaring weakness of these normative concepts is that they bring out little or no room for disagreement or difference within a situation like a community. Conformity is the order of the day since they are treated as truth-conditions, instead of being emendations of ongoing thought and action. These contemporary feminists fear that these values and ideals are codifications of norms regulating masculinity, where the womans normal is locus of the domesticatedity of the family, i.e. the private sphere of life. What current gender thought needs is the evolution of ongoing social practice. It should engage in evaluation of these concepts and influence the evolution of social practice in regard to concept-usage.3. GENDER AND womens liberation movement THE AFRICAN SCENARIOThe argument that African women cannot identify with doctrinaire western femi nism comes with cogent force because the knowledge and experience of African women have been snub or marginalised by a feminism that reflects only the perspectives of white western middle-class women that it indulges in false universalism and lacks critical awareness of its situation are simple inferences drawn from the argument. Its conception of woman remains problematic and therefore vacuous because its woman is intended to deny self-evident differences between woman and woman in situation and experience,132 Where is the Foundation of African Gender?privilege and power. It is apologetic of the peculiarities of woman since it misconceives them as functional and not as ballock differences (from man).As a result, its content and purpose are not establish on actual commonalties between women but on the experience and interests of some women who have the position and ability to impose upon other women their own idiosyncrasies, hurt and definitions, i.e. what they mean for themselve s and others. For instance, when western feminism seeks to balance or reverse the social scales, it employs conceptual polarities such as nature-culture, strong-weak, reason-intuition, public-private, male-female-neuter sexual division of labour. To explain the position of women, it says women are closer to nature they are more intuitive they are more private or secretive, etc, not knowing that it simply endorses masculinist (and hence exploitable) viewpoints about woman.Indeed feminism lacks a critical awareness of its situation. Feminism is not in dialogue with its context, past and present, and therefore cannot be used to forge emendations to any society, which cries for transformation of social relations. Feminism is engaged in a monologue, which mistakes its own ventriloquism for effectiveness since it is falsely generalising and insufficiently serious-minded to historical and cultural diversity.Another unwelcome feature of western feminism is that, although it borrows critica l tools from other emancipatory theories like Reformation, liberalism and Marxism, it does not put itself forward to intriguing other forms of subordination like slavery, colonialism, racism, and their accompanying prejudices and complexes, which affect women as well. Its exclusiveness to the western middle-class womans experience undermines its universality and objectivity, and therefore puts to serious doubt its relevance to the African woman of the same era.35 Worse still, its silence could slowly be interpreted as its assent to slavery, colonialism and racism, experiences that western middle-class men caused on both African women and men.Though not unique, the situation of the African feminist and that of the Western feminist would not replicate. An African woman for the most part finds herself in a social setting where power world power not be the paradigm of interpersonal life. Jobs are just as impenetrable to get for a female as they are for her male counterpart. In a ma rital situation, for example, she may dispense with the battle of balancing it out with her allegedly dominant male partner in terms of sexual division of labour, involving child-care and domestic chores due to the scenario of dependency, a creation of the extended family. Dependants assume in as auxiliary or surrogate mothers or fathers and as unofficial maids or cooks, etc. Even if dependants were not around, hiring domestic module would be more affordable in her society than it would be in the west. As is well known, in the west, it is almost impossible to hire domestic staff.3.1 TRADITION VERSUS MODERNITY SOCIO-POLITICS INCONTEMPORARY AFRICATransformation is a out of date occurrence in Africa. Perhaps devolution, rather than evolution or revolution, is the modus operandi for social transformation in Africa. The interface of the past and the present may not be conducive to the development of radical gender even among urban or elite women. Past attitudes and values tend to phas e out far too slowly under the weight of new attitudes and values. The usual conceptualisation of woman both among the rural and urban folk office have more conservative undertones than radical gender theorists wish. In Malawi, for instance, even after the legal repeal of the indecent dress code, the woman in trousers or mini-skirt risks categorisation as a champion or booster amplifier of moral turpitude. The continuing scenario of stripping off mini-skirted city women by vendors is testimonial enough of these slow-dying conservative undertones even in the urban or change areas of Malawi. Radical gender might be undaunted by this current negative public reception of trousers and mini-skirts in Malawi, dismissing it as a prime reaction of a bunch of male savages. Time alone lead heal this negative attitude gender activists console themselves. At this tip though, these attitudes should be of great concern because it is not unusual for radical gender women lobbyists to experien ce opposition and disapproval from fellow women.Another reality that might prevent replication of western gender in Africa is the social history of Africa. It is difficult to identify the dominant ideology for African societies outside Africas novel experience of slave trade, colonialism, and nationalism. However, anthropology and archaeology, which pretend to dig deeper into Africas past, and re-construct the Antique Africa antedating the three recent experiences of Africa, reveal to us that there are lineal and patrilineal societies in Africa. In the patrilineal societies, for example, Ngoni, Tumbuka, Sena, Ngonde in Malawi, males are dominant. However, broadly speaking, in matrilineal societies women are more powerful than men, an issue that is accentuated by the husbands settling in their wives villages upon marriage. One would expect that in a setting where land is the most valuable property, due to reliance on agriculture, a landowner would command a lot of power and influe nce. Husbands, as co-opted landowners, will in precept and practice have less power and influence than their wives. Therefore, if the western genders power paradigm is anything to go by, the matrilineal society depicts a reversal of the western gender model. In Malawi, Chewa, Yao, Manganja and Lomwe societies are largely matrilineal in principle. The Tonga of the Union shore of Lake Malawi can be included in gender-wise peculiar ethnic groups although the Tonga are bi-lineal.In these ethnic groups, one must distinguish the buckram from informal power structures and modes of social organisation in the formal power setting, that is the traditional chieftaincy, chiefs hold only symbolic power since what they execute in public is largely the consensus, or the communis sensus, of the ruling134 Where is the Foundation of African Gender?Unlike feminist intuition in the West, feminist theory and scholarship in Africa have formed neither a neatlydelineate field, nor one firmly rooted in t heoretically-inflected politics. With the consolidation of Westernfeminisms between 1960 and the early 1980s and the growth of the so-called second wave, clear political andintellectual traditions were formed around radical, liberal and Marxist/socialist feminisms. ulterior feminismsdrew on or deviated from these positions to engage increasingly with theories and politics appear in thenineties. African theories and womens movements have taken very different paths.In certain ways, African theories and womens movements have been closely linked to politics, although thispolitic

Options for Company in Financial Difficulty

Options for Company in Financial b an new(prenominal)(prenominal)Introduction in that respect argon a few elections for S.B. Ltd to consider acquiring through voiceless times. The five main options ar firstly, to discontinue the Nottingham divergence and Leicester and Loughborough sub voices could use their spare capacity to nominate 60% of Nottinghams 2010 yield in addition to their own 2010 output, close the Nottingham persona and outsource Nottinghams 2010 output, to launch a major campaign for every last(predicate) 3 harvest-times to enlarge their sales, to introduce a carry pricing system in the midst of the division and the head character to increase motivation among the staff in to sever completelyy one division and rightsizing the organisation.DiscontinuationAs seen Nottingham is not making growth, in reception to market forces, the first option is to discontinue Nottingham division by interchange its assets and settling its liabilities and shifting product ion from Nottingham to Leicester and Loughborough. The discontinuation finale is a decision when the division realizeability highlights the potential of un paying (Drury, 2010, pp.91-92). In this option, assuming that Leicester and Loughborough mother some spare capacity to produce 60% of Nottinghams 2010 output on top of their own 2010 output. match to Drury (2010, p.92), discontinuing the Nottingham division could aid the partnership in eliminating comprise of goods change, and other variable cost in the division. other cost such as advertising costs, distribution costs and degree Office costs remain unchanged and is not modify by the discontinuation of the Nottingham division. OHare (2010, Management Accounting Lecture 3) suggested other factors which go forth affect an organisation to discontinue a division, the division is making a loss, to identify avoidable costs or to discover other saving.OutsourcingOutsourcing option is also know as sub-contracting option has bec ome more(prenominal) than and more common in organisations, which enables organisations to concentrate on their core performance musical composition outsource other specialist their secondary activities (Collier et al, 2007, pp.220-221). In S.B. Ltd case, according to Oxford University machinate (2009), outsourcing could help to get through this hard time by liberation on a process of business process downsizing. Outsourcing al impoverisheds trading operations that go seasonal demands to bring in additional resources in time of needs. former(a) advantages of outsourcing are, outsource activities will allow S.B. Ltd to focus on important economic consumptions without sacrificing tint or service, outsource specialist could help improve the reference and exemplification of the jam. It may also be able to purchase the jam more cheaply or perhaps more quickly.Assuming the outsource charge for raspberry jam is 20% more then the cost of goods produced and sold for raspberry ja m. Hence, the sales of raspberry jam remains the same and Leicester division and Loughborough division have spare capacity which gives them room for expansion of 30% more sales separately. All other expenses remain the same for both(prenominal) Leicester and Loughborough divisions. This gives the Head Office a net profit of 76,000On distant to the advantages, outsourcing the jam to some specialist could lead to risk of unsatisfactory pure tone and regular of the jam. Other disadvantages could be leak of procedures and techniques of making the jam, outsourcing usually focuses on short-term cost-saving, and ignores the unchanged overhead burden.Major CampaignAnother option is to launch a major advertising campaign for all iii products to increase their sales and keep all three divisions. Advertising could go on awareness and generate demand of the sales of jams of S.B. Ltd. and hence acquiring more orders.In the advertising campaign, assuming the advertising cost increase by 20 % and it bring the sales of for each one product to an increase of 20% each. It simply boost up the profit of the company to 96,000.Transfer priceThe other option is when an organisation chooses to decentralise its divisions, imparting pricing helps adjudicate what price to charge for in-company transactions (Collier et al, 2007, p.38-39) and as a form of promoting divisional autonomy (OHare, 2010, Management Accounting Lecture 8). It is useful when goods are transferred between divisions hence, the performance measurement of each division is not prejudiced by the corporate objectives. The profitability of each business units will be affected and according to Solomon (1965 cited in Collier et al, 2007, pp.38-39), companies strength take advantage of the transfer pricing which are suitable for evaluating divisional performance for the corporate interest, sooner of the business units. Transfer pricing strategies and privy produce substantial evaluate savings in addition to enha ncing operational performance and change currency flow. In many organisations, in order to avoid de-motivating effects on different business units, negotiated prices are adopted.Say, each product is transferred to Derby division and it pays each division 70% of the sales it do from selling all the jams and yet still bare the cost of advertising, distribution and the head office costs. The local administrative expenses shall be bare by the respective divisions.There are downsides of transfer pricing. The political process in an organisation might affect the transfer pricing between divisions. Incorrect prices adopted can distort reported performance, by making some divisions more profitable at others expense. Opportunities exist to avoid taxes using artificial transfer prices to transfer profits from a high tax division to a low tax division.RightsizingRightsizing, or corporate restructuring, with the aim of reducing costs and improving efficiency and effectiveness is also one opt ion in difficult times. Rightsizing is downsizing in the belief that an organisation really should operate with fewer personnel. The primary reason to engage in rightsizing is to make the daily operations of a business more productive. For example, a company may be able to replace assembly line employees with machines which will be faster and less prone to error. In addition, rightsizing increases profits by reducing the overall overheads of a business.S.B. Ltd operates a full cost (TAC) timeworn costing system. The standard costs set fot the year 31 March 2010 and information active future costs and selling prices are in Appendix 2. assort 2 (700)Assuming the company decided to go for the option of charge all divisions open and launching an advertising campaign, you are required to produce a standard cost measure for each product and a budget for the company showing clearly the costs attributable to each division for the year to 31 March 2011. State clearly all assumptions ma de.Standard Cost CardA standard cost eyeshade can be defined as a detailed listing of the standard amounts of materials, labour and overheads that should go into a unit of product, multiplied by the standard price or rate that has been set for each elements (Anon 2, 2010). A standard cost card, for example must include the price, specifications, quantity and quality of material required, as well as such factors as the design of credit allowed from suppliers, cash and quantity discounts, spoilage due to wastage and deterioration. A standard cost card demands an investigation of all contributing factors that can cite a cost before the cost is adopted. According to Drury (2010, p.278), standard costs are predetermined costs and they are the target costs that should be incurred under efficient operating conditions. The standard cost card will be subjected to updating caused by revision of standards such as changes in prices, discounts, etc.Standard costing is a come across system w hich sets standards that are ideal, evaluate and achievable (OHare, 2010, Management Accounting Lecture). Collier (2007, p.36) put frontward that standard costing is a control technique which compares standard cost and all of production grosss with actual results. It is to obtain variances of each division and product (OHare, 2010, Management Accounting Lecture 8), which are used to stimulate improve performance and to increase motivation of staff in each division. It is a detective control used to prevent problems from reoccurring as it measures variances as it occur, thereof allowing management to take necessary corrective action.The standard cost card for the year ended 31 March 2011 (per batch of 40 jars each 500 grams) for Strawberry Jam, Raspberry Jam and Orange Marmalade are as below calculateThe principal tool in planning is called a budget. A budget is a collection of predictions. It is an estimation of the revenue and expenses over a specified future period of time. Th ere are three purposes of budgets as identified by Emmanuel et al (1990 cited in Collier, 2007, pp.39-40), as forecasts of future events, as motivational targets and as standards for performance evaluation. Budget is a financial plan or qualitative statement for implementing the heterogeneous decisions to be pursued during a specific accounting period, that management has made in the previous period.Collier (2007, pp.39-42) suggest that budgets provide a control machine through both the feed forward and feedback loops. The control mechanism in the budget is to provide a performance monitoring function to the appropriate managers who are responsible for implementing the various decisions by producing and presenting the performance reports. According to Drury (2010, pp.8-9), the performance report provide feedback information by comparing plotted and actual results.Generally, a functional budget is drawn up for each division of S.B. Ltd. These budgets are, then, merged together into a single combined statement, which is known as the master budget, of S.B. Ltds expectations for the future periods. The master budget consists of budgeted profit, which it is expected to convey to everyone in the organisation the part that they are expected to earn in implementing managements decisions. The master budget, usually, consists of a budgeted profit and loss, a budgeted balance sheet and a budgeted cash-flow statement. In order to finalised a budgeted profit and loss, other budgets for the individual divisions and produced, such as the sales budget, direct materials use budget, direct materials purchase budget, direct labour budget, and selling and administration budget. have the best BudgetBudgeted Profit and Loss Account for the year ending 31 March 2011Forecast sales (Schedule 1)816,000Purchases (Schedule 3)Materials Fruit130,272

History Of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy Psychology Essay

History Of Chronic traumatic Encephalopathy Psychology turn outChronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a syndrome of ruttish lability, Parkinsonism, ataxia, and cognitive hinderance suffered by athletes who undergo repetitive concussive and subconcussive blows to the run (Cantu 2007). Owing to its initial uncovering in shorts, CTE has been various known as punch winoard, dementia pugilistica, and psychopathological deterioration of pugilist. This paper will discuss the history of research into this bewitching topic, starting with the first descriptions in the medical literature and covering the build made in understanding the clinical presentation, epidemiology, neuropathology, and genetics of the indisposition.CTE was first depict by the Ameri tramp pathologist Martland in a 1928 article on the punch drunk syndrome in boxers. Martland noned that for years boxing fans and invokers had discovered cuckoo or goofy behavior in fighters. The fighters most a good deal af fected were poor boxers who would take considerable head punishment, pursuance only to land a knockout blow. Punch drunk was in like manner common among present moment rate fighters used for training purposes, who may be knocked down several times a sidereal day. Martland described the symptoms of punch drunk based on his examination of five boxers. The early symptoms of punch drunk were unsteady gait and slight mental confusion. Some boxers did non kick upstairs beyond this stage, while early(a)s went on to develop slow movements, disbelief in speech, and hand tremors. In severe cases, boxers would develop a propulsive gait, Parkinsonian facies, and marked mental deterioration. Martland speculated that the mechanism of brain blemish was traumatic cerebral hemorrhages followed by gliosis. This conjecture was based on his observation of binary cerebral hemorrhages in people who died from subacute traumatic head blemish (Martland 1927).Building on Martlands work, researche rs investigated the clinical course and epidemiology of CTE. Critchley observe that CTE butt joint progress in many boxers even after they had retired, a phenomenon that to this day eludes exposition (1957). Corsellis noted that emotional lability and violent behavior tended to precede the Parkinsonian symptoms, ataxia, and cognitive decline mentioned by Martland (1973). Roberts studied the prevalence of CTE in retired professional boxers and build that 17% of subjects exhibited brain damage as determined by neurological exam and EEG abnormalities. Just as Martland observed that boxers who took more hits to the head were more likely to be punch drunk, Roberts showed that travel length and number of professional fights were take chances factors for CTE. Indeed, 47% of boxers whose careers were longish than 10 years suffered brain damage, compared with 13% of boxers with careers shorter than five years. Likewise, roughly 50% of boxers who had fought over 150 bouts had brain da mage, compared with 19% of those with 50 to 150 bouts and 7% of those with less than 50 bouts (Roberts 1969). This idea of a dose-response family relationship between tell trauma and CTE was supported by the observation that inexpert boxers did not suffer neuropsychological deficits due to boxing (Butler 1993). CTE is not unique to boxing, but has occurred in other sports with high rates of head trauma such as wrestling, horseracing, and parachuting as well as a case of battered wife syndrome (Corsellis 1976).Research into the gross neuropathology of CTE was spearheaded by Corsellis, who studied the brains of 15 deceased boxers, eight of whom were world or theme champions (1973). Corsellis identified four common areas of brain damage and their associated clinical symptoms and signs. First, caries septum pellucidum with fenestrations in the leaflets was a common finding. In addition, the lateral and trey ventricles were overstated and the frontal and temporal lobes were atrophi ed. These changes were associated with emotional lability and memory impairment. Second, degeneration of the substantia common racoon, as manifest by the loss of pigmented neurons, was associated with Parkinsonian symptoms like tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia. Third, gliosis and neuronal loss in the cerebellar tonsils was associated with loss of balance and coordination. Fourth, diffuse neuronal loss was associated with an Alzheimers-like dementia. Eight of the cardinal cases Corsellis studied exhibited all four types of brain damage.The link between CTE and Alzheimers was beef up when in 1967, Constantinidis showed the presence of neurofibrillary tangles in brains affected by traumatic stigma (1967). Subsequent research showed that the microscopic pathology of CTE differed from that of Alzheimers in two measurable ways. First, CTE exhibited a unique distribution of neurofibrillary tangles in the neocortex. Neurofibrillary tangles in CTE were preferentially distributed in footling layers of the neocortex layer II and the upper two thirds of layer III. In contrast, in Alzheimers they were located primarily in deeper layers the lower third of layer III and layer V (Hof 1992). Second, whereas of import farinaceous plaques are an important feature of Alzheimers disease, they are not an essential part of CTE. One take showed that fourteen out of the fifteen brains studied by Corsellis stained convinced(p) for genus Beta amyloid deposits (Roberts 1991). However, in a series of 51 CTE cases, McKee found that beta amyloid plaques were present in only 47% of cases (2009).The drill of neurofibrillary tangles observed in CTE overlaps with the areas of neuronal loss identified by Corsellis. McKee observed neurofibrillary tangles and tau-immunoreactive astrocytes in parts of the neocortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, brainstem and spinal cord. The density of neurofibrillary tangles was peculiarly high in the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and amygdala. This suggests involvement of the papez circuit and may explain the emotional lability observed in CTE. In addition, neurofibrillary tangles beat been found in the substantia nigra and cerebellum. (McKee 2009).Recent research has suggested several mechanisms for brain impairment in the move of repeated trauma. Neurofibrillary tangles in CTE hurt a characteristic perivascular distribution, grouped nearly small intracortical vessels (Geddes 1999). This finding suggests that trauma may damage the blood-brain barrier, releasing neurotoxins that promote the formation of neurofibrillary tangles around blood vessels. In a similar vein, another(prenominal) study found that in many areas of CTE-affected brains the microvasculature was less dense and involved than normal. In addition, the distribution of this pathological microvasculature was highly cor think with the distribution of neurofibrillary tangles. The proposed explanation was that trauma damaged the microvasculature and led to the growth of neurofibrillary tangles. (Buee 1994). On a related note, neurofibrillary tangles in CTE were found to contain higher levels of iron and aluminum than those in Alzheimers disease, possibly due to damage to the blood-brain barrier (Bouras 1997).Diffuse axonal injury is a second possible mechanism of injury. After a cut, disruptions in axolemma permeability and in axonal transport can lead to axotomy at bottom 24 hours (Maxwell 1995). Indeed, in one study eighty percent of patients who died from acute head trauma showed immunocytochemical evidence of axonal injury (McKenzie 1996).A third mechanism of brain injury is the deposition of beta amyloid. Although beta amyloid plaques are present in only half of CTE cases, studies make shown that beta amyloid deposition increases after head trauma (Gentleman 1993). In addition, beta amyloid concentration in the brain is correlated with neurological recuperation following head trauma (Brody 2008).Genetic studies suggest that t he apolipoproteinE e4 allele predisposes to worsened outcomes after traumatic brain injury. One study finds that patients with the APOE e4 allele have a two-fold higher risk of death, vegetative state, or severe handicap compared to those without the allele (Teasdale 1997). The mechanism by which APOE e4 influences recovery from traumatic brain injury is unclear, though a role in neuronal repair has been suggested (Chen 1997). there are many unanswered questions regarding CTE. First, recent case reports indicate that CTE can occur in professional football players and soccer players (Omalu 2005, Matser 1998). The prevalence and risk factors for developing CTE in populations other than boxers are unknown and implore further investigation. On this front, public awareness is increasing and more than 250 authorized and former NFL players have pledged to donate their brains to the Center for the Study of Traumatic Encephalopathy (CSTE) at Boston University School of Medicine (CSTE 2010 ). Second, the observation that CTE can present years after retirement from sports cannot be explained by original theories of CTE pathophysiology. Third, there has been no research into potential treatment options, though Parkinsons and Alzhemiers drugs have been used speculatively. Fourth, current preventative measures consist of return to play guidelines that hobbyhorse players who suffer concussions until their symptoms resolve. This is based on the finding that the risk of a second concussion is increased in the period following a concussion (Cantu 2003). However, no protocols for measuring degree of neurological impairment and reinjury risk in athletes have been developed.Chronic traumatic encephalopathy is a progressive neurodegenerative disease marked by emotional lability, Parkinsonism, ataxia, and cognitive decline. Since its first description by Martland, much has been learned about this disease. CTE occurs in professional athletes who suffer repeated head injury in a v ariety of sports, but has not been found in amateurs. Pathologically, CTE presents with neurofibrillary tangles in a distribution unique from Alzheimers and with beta amyloid deposits in about half of cases. Various mechanisms of injury have been proposed, though none have been proven. Genetic studies suggest that APOE e4 may promote CTE. Areas ripe for future research include the prevalence of CTE in sports other than boxing and the pathophysiology, treatment, and prevention of this disease.